English Symbols
Introduction Grammar 1 Chapter 1 first symbols Grammar 2 Chapter 2 the suffix and X Grammar 3 Chapter 3 time person number and case Grammar 4 Chapter 4 auxiliary and ordinary verbs Grammar 5 Chapter 5 verbs' meanings Grammar 6 Chapter 6 character and reflection Grammar 7 Chapter 7 aspect Grammar 8 Chapter 8 "anything" and "nothing" Grammar 9 Chapter 9 "rarely" "never" and "ever" Grammar 10 Chapter 10 moods and time Grammar 11 Chapter 11 "can" "could" "will" and "would" Grammar 12 Chapter 12 "must" "should" and "ought" Grammar 13 Chapter 13 requests Grammar 14 Chapter 14 commands Grammar 15 Chapter 15 entities, material, and proper names Glossary of Symbols
INTRODUCTION
People who talk about things have names for them. People who wish to talk about the expressions of a language need names for those expressions. The naming of the expressions of a language is the business of a grammar. For example:-
GRAMMAR 1
St = "the child has had to stop eating the chocolate"
CHAPTER 1 first symbols
Grammar 1 is a simplest possible example grammar. It names "the child has had to stop eating the chocolate" an St expression. St is defined as a name for that string of words. St stands for 'statement'. A statement is a type of sentence to be distinguished from, for example, a question such as "has the child had to?".
If "the child", from the example statement, is named an N expression:-
and if the words "has had to stop eating the chocolate" are named a V expression:-N = "the child"
then the definition for St in Grammar 1 can be replaced by a definition giving the name St to an N expression and a V expression strung together in that order:-V = "has had to stop eating the chocolate"
St = N + V
The three new definitions, for St N and V, make a grammar, Grammar 1a, to replace Grammar 1:-
Grammar 1a St = N + V N = "the child" V = "has had to stop eating the chocolate"
The definition in Grammar 1a which says that St 'equals' N 'plus' V means that an N expression and a V expression, strung together in that order, are an St expression or 'statement'. The symbols St N and V do not have numerical values.
A grammar can be used for parsing and generation. The example statement can be parsed, using Grammar 1a, by substituting N for "the child" and V for "has had to stop eating the chocolate", and then substituting St for N + V:-
"the child has had to stop eating the chocolate" = N + V = St
The reverse of parsing is generation. The example can be generated from St, using Grammar 1a, by substituting N + V for St, and then substituting "the child " for N and "has had to stop eating the chocolate" for V:-
St = N + V = "the child has had to stop eating the chocolate"
A grammar such as Grammar 1a is a list of substitution rules. During parsing, what is on the left of an 'equals' sign is substituted for what is on the right of the sign. During generation, what is on the right is substituted for what is on the left.
The words "the child" from the example statement have been named an N expression. The words "the chocolate" from the example can also be named an N:-
N = "the child" or "the chocolate"
The words "has had to stop eating the chocolate", from the example, have been named a V expression. The strings of words "had to stop eating the chocolate" "stop eating the chocolate" and "eating the chocolate" can also be named V expressions:-
Each of these four V expressions is a verb, "has" "had" "stop" or "eating", followed by that verb 's complement.V = "has had to stop eating the chocolate" or "had to stop eating the chocolate" or "stop eating the chocolate" or "eating the chocolate"
The definition in Grammar 1a which names N + V a statement, St, is 'true' in Grammar 1a, in which the only V named is "has had to stop eating the chocolate'. A definition is 'true' if the expression, or each of the expressions, which it names, is a good well-formed expression, which speakers of the language will recognise and accept as normal and grammatical. Four V expressions have now been named, and the N + V strings "the child stop eating the chocolate" and "the child eating the chocolate" are not good statements. The four V expressions named above are of restricted use, and the restrictions on their use must be written into a grammar which names them.
English V expressions occur in six 'forms', three 'modal' and three 'non-modal'. The three modal forms or 'moods' are the 'indicative mood' as in "I am" and "I do", the 'conditional mood' as in "by tomorrow I could" "by tomorrow I might" and "by tomorrow I would", and the 'subjunctive mood' as in "if by tomorrow I were" and "if by tomorrow I did". In this chapter, the indicative will be he only mood discussed. The words "has had to stop eating the chocolate" are a V in the indicative mood. This will be shown by placing the symbol i for 'indicative' in brackets after the symbol V:-
A statement may be an N followed by a V(i), a V in the indicative mood:-V(i) = "has had to stop eating the chocolate"
The three non-modal forms of English V expression, the forms which are not moods, will be named the e form as in "I will love" and "to love", the ed form as in "I have loved", and the ing form as in "loving". The string of words "had to stop eating the chocolate" is a V in ed form, "stop eating the chocolate" is a V in e form, and "eating the chocolate" is a V in ing form:-St = N + V(i)
V(ed) = "had to stop eating the chocolate" V(e) = "stop eating the chocolate" V(ing) = "eating the chocolate"
These names can be used. In the V(i) "has had to stop eating the chocolate", "has" is followed by a string of words which has been named a V(ed). In the V(ed), "had to" is followed by a string which has been named a V(e). In the V(e), "stop" is followed by a V(ing). And in the V(ing), "eating" is followed by an N:-
V(i) = "has" + V(ed) V(ed) = "had to" + V(e) V(e) = "stop" + V(ing) V(ing) = "eating" + N
The new definitions for St N and V make a grammar, Grammar 1b, to replace Grammar 1a:-
Grammar 1b St = N + V(i) N = "the child" or "the chocolate" V(i) = "has" + V(ed) V(ed) = "had to" + V(e) V(e) = "stop" + V(ing) V(ing) = "eating" + N
Using the definitions in Grammar 1b as substitution rules, the example statement can be generated from St:-
St = N + V(i) = "the child" + V(i) = "the child" + "has" + V(ed) = "the child has" + "had to" + V(e) = "the child has had to" + "stop" + V(ing) = "the child has had to stop" + "eating" + N = "the child has had to stop eating the chocolate"
The symbols i e ed and ing are used to show restrictions and will be called 'restrictors'. The definitions for St N and V from Grammar 1b, and a table showing the new symbols used as restrictors, make Grammar 2. Grammar 2 sums up the position reached in Chapter 1 and serves as the starting point for Chapter 2.
In Chapter 2, the definitions in Grammar 2 which name the phrases "has"+V(ed) "had to"+V(e) "stop"+V(ing) and "eating"+N will be replaced by shorter but potentially more powerful definitions naming the single words "has" "had" "stop" and "eating".
GRAMMAR 2
St = N + V(i) N = "the child" or "the chocolate" V(i) = "has" + V(ed) V(ed) = "had to" + V(e) V(e) = "stop" + V(ing) V(ing) = "eating" +N
CHAPTER 2 the suffix and X
A grammar gives names to expressions. Grammar 2 gives the names St, N, V(i). V(ed), V(e), and V(ing). The symbols St N and V are 'name symbols', and i ed e and ing are 'restrictors'. In Grammar 2, the name of an expression is a name symbol, perhaps followed by a pair of brackets enclosing a restrictor.
A third possible part of an expression's name will be a 'suffix'. A suffix will show incompleteness, and state what is missing.
In Grammar 2, the string "has"+V(ed) is named a V(i), a V expression in the indicative mood:-
In the string "has"+V(ed), "has" can be named an incomplete V(i) requiring a V(ed) for completion. This will be done by adding V(ed) to V(i) as a suffix. The word "has" will named a V(i)V(ed):-V(i) = "has" + V(ed)
In Grammar 2, the string "had to"+V(e) is named a V(ed). Within this string, "had" is a an incomplete V in ed non-modal form requiring the string "to"+V(e) for completion:-V(i)V(ed) = "has"
In Grammar 2, "stop"+V(ing) is named a V(e), and "eating"+N is named a V(ing). The word "stop" will now be named an incomplete V(e) requiring a V(ing) for completion, and "eating" will be named an incomplete V(ing) requiring an N:-V(ed)"to"+V(e) = "had"
The description of V is now:-V(e)V(ing) = "stop" V(ing)N = "eating"
V(i)V(ed) = "has" V(ed)"to"+V(e) = "had" V(e)V(ing) = "stop" V(ing)N = "eating"
In Grammar 2, the string N + V(i) is named an St or 'statement'. If the V(i) in the string is incomplete, the St is also incomplete, and requires for its completion what the incomplete V(i) requires. To provide for this, a new symbol X will be introduced as an 'unknown symbol'. The unknown symbol X will represent 'any expression or expressions or none'. X will usually appear twice in a definition, representing the same thing in each place. What will be referred to as the string:- N + V(i)X will be named an StX:-
This definition , the definition for N from Grammar 2, and the new definitions for V, make a grammar, Grammar 2a, to replace Grammar 2:-StX = N + V(i)X
Grammar 2a StX = N + V(i)X N = "the child" or "the chocolate" V(i)V(ed) = "has" V(ed)"to"+V(e) = "had" V(e)V(ing) = "stop" V(ing)N = "eating"
The parsing of the example statement, using the definitions of Grammar 2a as substitution rules, can begin:-
Grammar 2a does not give a name to the word "to", so "to" remains in the string being parsed. On the authority of the definition in Grammar 2a:-
and allotting to X the value V(ed), StV(ed) can be substituted for N+V(i)V(ed):-StX = N+V(i)X
The words "the child has" are an incomplete statement requiring a V(ed) for completion.
A suffix shows incompleteness and states what is missing. When what was missing has been provided, and the incomplete expression has been completed, its suffix is no longer needed. The suffix in the name of the once incomplete expression can be cancelled against the name of the expression which completed it. In the parse, the incomplete V(ing) requiring an N for completion is followed by an N. N can be cancelled against N, leaving V(ing) with no suffix:-
The words "eating the chocolate" are a complete V(ing).
The rule of cancellation is 'like cancels like'. If a completing expression is itself incomplete, its suffix must remain uncancelled. In the parse, the incomplete St requiring a V(ed) is followed by an incomplete V(ed) requiring "to"+V(e) . V(ed) can be cancelled against V(ed) leaving the "to"+V(e) suffix uncancelled to be attached to St:-
The words "the child has had" are an incomplete statement requiring "to"+V(e) for completion.
The further cancelling of "to+V(e) against "to"+V(e) and V(ing) against V(ing) leaves St with no suffix:-
The parse is finished. The words "the child has had to stop eating the chocolate" are a complete St.
Two operations can now be used during parsing: substitution on the authority of a grammar, using the grammar's definitions as substitution rules; and cancellation, using the rule 'like cancels like'.
The reverse of parsing is generation. The reverse of cancelling like against like is splitting into like and like. The generation from St of the example on the authority of Grammar 2a can begin:-
Grammar 2a offers no substitute for V(i), but if V(i) is split into the string V(i)V(ed) + V(ed) , "has" can be substituted for V(i)V(ed):-St = N + V(i) = "the child" + V(i)
Splitting and substitution can continue:-"the child" + V(i) = "the child" + V(i)V(ed) + V(ed) = "the child" + "has" + V(ed)
"the child" + "has" + V(ed) = "the child has" + V(ed)"to"+V(e) + "to" + V(e) = "the child has" + "had" + "to" + V(e) = "the child has had to" + V(e)V(ing) + V(ing) = "the child has had to stop" + V(ing)N + N = "the child has had to stop eating the chocolate"
Two operations can now be used during generation, substitution on the authority of definitions in a grammar, and splitting into like and like.
The definitions in Grammar 2a and the table of restrictors from Grammar 2 make Grammar 3. Grammar 3 is the starting point for Chapter 3, which replaces the definitions for V in terms of "has" "had" "stop" and "eating" with more powerful definitions, adds pronouns such as "I" "you" and "he" to the description of N, and introduces time person number and case restrictors.
GRAMMAR 3
StX = N + V(i)X N = "the child" or "the chocolate" V(i)V(ed) = "has" V(ed)"to"+V(e) = "had" V(e)V(ing) = "stop" V(ing)N = "eating"
CHAPTER 3 time person number and case
The five words "ate" "eat" "eaten" "eating" and "eats" are the verb eat, and eat will be used as a name symbol for them:-
The words "had" "has" "have" and "having" are the verb have, and "stop" "stopped" "stopping" and "stops" are the verb stop:-eat = "ate" or "eat" or "eaten" or "eating" or "eats"
have = "had" or "has" or "have" or "having" stop = "stop" or "stopped" or "stopping" or "stops"
These words are of restricted use, and the restrictions on their use must be written into the definitions which name them.
The words "eat" "eaten" and "eating" are the e ed and ing non-modal forms of the verb eat:-
as in "I have to eat" "I have eaten" and "I stop eating". In the indicative mood, eat is represented by "ate" "eat" and "eats":-eat(e) = "eat" eat(ed) = "eaten" eat(ing) = "eating"
The word "ate" is the verb eat in the indicative mood in past time, and "eat" and "eats" are the verb in the indicative in present time. The symbols pa for 'past time' and pr for 'present time' will be introduced as restrictors:-eat(i) = "ate" or "eat" or "eats"
The word "ate" as the verb eat in the indicative past can be in any 'person', first second or third, and either 'number', singular or plural. It is possible to say "I ate" "you yourself ate" "he ate" "we ate" "you yourselves ate" and "they ate". The word "eat" as the verb eat in the indicative present can be lst-person or 2nd-person singular, as in "I eat" and "you yourself eat", or plural in any person, as in "we eat" "you yourselves eat" and "they eat". The word "eats" is indicative present 3rd-person and singular, as in "he eats". The symbols lp 2p and 3p will be introduced as restrictors for the three persons, and sg and pl will be used as restrictors for singular and plural number. Restrictors are needed only if there are restrictions to be made:-eat(i,pa) = "ate" eat(i,pr) = "eat" or "eats"
The words "eat" "eaten" and "eating", as the three non-modal forms of eat, can be in any time, person, and number. Their definitions remain:-eat(i,pa) = "ate" eat(i,pr,1p/2p,sg) = "eat" eat(i,pr,pl) = "eat" eat(i,pr,3p,sg) = "eats"
The three definitions which name the word "eat":-eat(e) = "eat" eat(ed) = "eaten" eat(ing) = "eating"
will be presented as a single definition:-eat(i,pr,1p/2p,sg) = "eat" eat(i,pr,pl) = "eat" eat(e) = "eat"
The description of the verb eat is now:-eat(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e) = "eat"
This is the description of eat for Grammar 4. The definitions in this description are arranged so that the words being named are in alphabetical order. The description of eat can be thought of as the description of a function. Input to eat a set of restrictions, and eat outputs the required word from the list "ate" "eat" "eaten" "eating" and "eats".eat(i,pa) = "ate" eat(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e) = "eat" eat(ed) = "eaten" eat(ing) = "eating" eat(i,pr,3p,sg) = "eats"
The symbols which have been used as restrictors after the name symbol eat can be set out as what will be called the v restrictor tree:-
The v testrictor tree is associated with V expressions.
The symbol f, from the v restrictor tree, can be tagged f', to represent a particular form, i e ed or ing; the symbol t can be tagged t', to represent any particular time, pa or pr; p' will represent any particular person, 1p 2p or 3p; and nr' will represent any particular number, sg or pl. The symbol v can be tagged v', to represent any particular form time person and number.
The definition in Grammar 3:-
will now be replaced by a more powerful definition. The verb eat can be an incomplete V requiring an N for completion, as in "the child eats the chocolate":-V(ing)N = "eating"
The form f', i e ed or ing; time t', pa or pr; person p', 1p 2p or 3p, and number nr', sg or pl, of the incomplete V, are those of the verb:-VN = eat
Or, using v' to represent any form time person and number:-V(f',t',p',nr')N = eat(f',t',p',nr')
V(v')N = eat(v')
The verb eat can also be a complete V, as in "the child eats":-
V(v') = eat(v')
The words "had" "has" "have" and "having", representing the verb have, are similarly restricted:-
This is the description of have for Grammar 4. The verb have can be an incomplete V requiring a V(ed) for completion, but this use of have is restricted to the indicative mood, as in "the child has eaten the chocolate", and to the verb's e non-modal form, as in "the child has to have eaten the chocolate". It is not normal to say "the child has had eaten the chocolate", and in "the child stops having eaten the chocolate"; "having eaten the chocolate" is an adverbial phrase and will not be named a V. The symbol (i/e) will be tagged (i/e)' to represent 'a form in the range indicative or e':-have(i,pa)/(ed) = "had" have(i,pr,3p,sg) = "has" have(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e) = "have" have(ing) = "having"
V((i/e)',t',p',nr')V(ed) = have((i/e)',t',p',nr')
The verb have can be an incomplete V requiring "to"+V(e) , as in "the child has to eat the chocolate", or an N, as in "the child has the chocolate". In these uses, have can be in any form time person and number, v':-
V(v')"to"+V(e)" = have(v') V(v')N = have(v')
The words "stop" "stoppped" "stopping" and "stops", as the verb stop, are restricted:-
This is the description of stop for Grammar 4,. The verb stop can be an incomplete V requiring for completion the string N+V(ing) , as in "the child stops them eating the chocolate", or requiring an N alone, as in "he stops the child", or requiring a V(ing), as in "the child stops eating the chocolate", or can be a complete V, as in "he stops":-stop(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e) = "stop" stop(i,pa)/(ed) = "stopped" stop(ing) = "stopping" stop((i,pr,3p,sg) = "stops"
V(v')N+V(ing) = stop(v') V(v')N = stop(v') V(v')V(ing) = stop(v') V(v') = stop(v')
Definitions for V can be written to provide for as many uses of as many verbs as is wished, though not all the necessary symbols have yet been introduced.
The pronouns "he" "her" "him" "I" "it" "me" "she" "them" "they" "us" "we" and "you" will be named using Pronoun as a name symbol. An N expression may be a Pronoun:-
Pronouns occur in three 'cases', the 'nominative case' as in "I" and "he", the 'accusative case' as in "me" and "him", and the 'genitive case' as in "my" and "his". In this chapter, only the nominative and accusative cases will be discussed.The symbols nom for 'nominative case' and acc for 'accusative case' will be used as restrictors:-N = Pronoun Pronoun = "he" or "her" or "him" or "I" or "it" or "me" or "she" or "them" or "they" or "us" or "we" or "you"
Pronouns occur in the three persons, the first person as in "I" and "we", the second person as in "you" and the third person as in "he" "she" "it" and "they", and in the two numbers, singular and plural:-Pronoun(nom) = "he" Pronoun(acc) = "her" or "him" Pronoun(nom) = "I" Pronoun(nom/acc) = "it" Pronoun(acc) = "me" Pronoun(nom) = "she" Pronoun(acc) = "them" Pronoun(nom) = "they" Pronoun(acc) = "us" Pronoun(nom) = "we" Pronoun(nom/acc) = "you"
These definitions are the description of Pronoun for Grammar 4. The symbols which have been used as restrictors after the name symbol Pronoun can be set out as what will be called the n restrictor tree:-Pronoun(nom,3p,sg) = "he" Pronoun(acc,3p,sg) = "her" or "him" Pronoun(nom,1p,sg) = "I" Pronoun(nom/acc,3p,sg) = "it" Pronoun(acc,1p,sg) = "me" Pronoun(nom,3p,sg) = "she" Pronoun(acc,3p,pl) = "them" Pronoun(nom,3p,pl) = "they" Pronoun(acc,1p,pl) = "us" Pronoun(nom,1p,pl) = "we" Pronoun(nom/acc,2p) = "you"
The n restrictor tree is associated with N expressions. The n and v restrictor trees are repeated below as part of Grammar 4.
When an N expression is a Pronoun, the N has the case cs', nominative or accusative, and the person p' and number nr' of the Pronoun:-
Or, the symbol n from the n restrictor tree can be tagged n' to represent any case person and number:-N(cs',p',nr') = Pronoun(cs',p',nr')
N(n') = Pronoun(n')
The N expressions "the child" and "the chocolate" are nominative or accusative, 3rd-person, and singular:-
N(n') = Pronoun(n')
N(nom/acc,3p,sg) = "the child"
or "the chocolate"When an N and an incomplete or complete V(i) are strung together to make an incomplete or complete statement, the N must be in the nominative case:-
It is normal to say "he eats the chocolate" but not "him eats it". The N(nom) and incomplete or complete V(i) must be in the same person p' and number nr'. It is normal to say "we eat the chocolate" and "he eats it", but not "we eats it":-StX = N(nom) + V(i)X
This definition is the description of St or 'statement' for Grammar 4.StX = N(nom,p',nr') + V(i,p',nr')X
When the verb eat is an incomplete V requiring an N for completion, the required N must be in the accusative case:-
It is normal to say "he eats them" but not "he eats they". When have is an incomplete V requiring an N, the required N must be accusative.:-V(v')N(acc) = eat(v')
as in "he has them". When stop requires N+V(ing) , as in "he stops them eating" and when stop requires an N, as in "he stops them", the N must be accusative:-V(v')N(acc) = have(v')
V(v')N(acc)+V(ing) = stop(v') V(v')N(acc) = stop(v')
The description of V for Grammar 4 is:-
V(v')N(acc) = eat(v') V(v') = eat(v') V((i/e)',t',p',nr')V(ed) = have((i/e)',t',p',nr') V(v')"to"+V(e) = have(v') V(v')N(acc) = have(v') V(v')N(acc)+V(ing) = stop(v') V(v')N(acc) = stop(v') V(v')V(ing) = stop(v') V(v') = stop(v')
For example, using the definitions developed in this chapter and repeated below in Grammar 4 as substitution rules, and cancelling, using the rule 'like cancels like':-
This parse illustrates how recognition sparks along a string of words; "he" and "stops" are recognised together as a Pronoun in the nominative case and the verb stop in the indicative mood and present time, each 3rd-person singular; N is substituted for Pronoun; stop(i,pr,3p,sg) "the child" and "eating" are recognised together as an incomplete V(i,pr,3p,sg) requiring for completion N(acc) + V(ing) , an N(acc), and the ing form of the verb eat; St is substituted for N(nom,3p,sg) + V(i,pr,3p,sg), and the N(acc)+V(ing) suffix to V(i,pr,3p,sg) becomes a suffix to St; eat(ing) and "the chocolate" are recognised together as an incomplete V(ing) requiring for completion an N(acc), and an N(acc). Cancellation then simplifies the string to St. During parsing, as in the above example, expressions are often recognised as a string of two expressions relating to one another, or sometimes as a string of three.
Again, substituting on the authority of Grammar 4, and splitting into like and like, a generation can begin:-
A generation, such as the above, can run on and on. A sentence such as "he has to have to have to have to...." could loop on for ever. There is no theoretical limit to the length of the statements which Grammar 4 can parse or generate. A grammar is said to 'name' any expression which it can parse or generate. If there is no limit to the length of the expressions which a grammar can name, there is no limit to the number of expressions which the grammar can name. A grammar of finite length, even a tiny one like Grammar 4, can name an infinite number of expressions.St = N(nom,1p,pl) + V(i,pa,1p,pl) = Pronoun,1p,pl) + V(i,pa,1p,pl)"to"+V(e) + "to" + V(e) = "we" + have(i,pa,1p,pl) + "to" + V(e) = "we" + "had" + "to" + V(e)V(ing) + V(ing) = "we had to" + stop(e) + V(ing) = "we had to" + "stop" + V(ing)N(acc) + N(acc) = "we had to stop" + eat(ing) + "the chocolate" = "we had to stop" + "eating" + "the chocolate" = "we had to stop eating the chocolate"
Grammar 4 sums up the position at the end of this chapter. Chapter 4 introduces a second type of sentence, the question, and introduces auxiliary and ordinary verbs.
GRAMMAR 4
StX = N(nom,p',nr') + V(i,p',nr')X N(n') = Pronoun(n') N(nom/acc,3p,sg) = "the child" or "the chocolate" Pronoun(nom,3p,sg) = "he" Pronoun(acc,3p,sg) = "her" or "him" Pronoun(nom,1p,sg) = "I" Pronoun(nom/acc,3p,sg) = "it" Pronoun(acc,1p,sg) = "me" Pronoun(nom,3p,sg) = "she" Pronun(acc,3p,pl) = "them" Prooun(nom,3p,pl) = "they" Pronoun(acc,1p,pl) = "us" Pronoun(nom,1p,pl) = "we" Pronoun(nom/acc,2p) = "you" V(v')N(acc) = eat(v') V(v') = eat(v') V((i/e)',t',p',nr')V(ed) = have((i/e)',t',p',nr') V(v')"to"+V(e) = have(v') V(v')N(acc) = have(v') V(v')N(acc)+V(ing) = stop(v') V(v')N(acc) = stop(v') V(v')V(ing) = stop(v') V(v') = stop(v') eat(i,pa) = "ate" eat(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e) = "eat" eat(ed) = "eaten" eat(ing) = "eating" eat(i,pr,3p,sg) = "eats" have(i,pa)/(ed) = "had" have(i,pr,3p,sg) = "has" have(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e) = "have" have(ing) = "having" stop(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e) = "stop" stop(i,pa)/(ed) = "stopped" stop(ing) = "stopping" stop((i,pr,3p,sg) = "stops"
CHAPTER 4 auxiliary and ordinary verbs
The symbols Text, and Q for 'question', will now be introduced. A Text may be a statement or a question:-
Two texts strung together make a single text:-Text = St or Q
In Grammars 1 to 4, the top symbol, or symbol first defined, is St. In Grammar 5 and later grammars, Text will be the top symbol. A Text may be a monologue or a conversation, spoken or written, of unlimited length.Text = St or Q or Text + Text
The statement:-
for example, can be turned into a question by reversing the order of "he" and "has":-St = "he has to eat the chocolate"
The statement can be made negative by adding "not" after "has"; the question can be made negative by adding "not" after "has he"; and both sentences can be made negative by attaching "n't" to "has":-Q = "has he to eat the chocolate?"
Each of these six sentences can be shortened by leaving out "to eat the chocolate", the complement of "has", if a reader or listener will know what has been left out:-St = "he has to eat the chocolate" or "he has not to eat the chocolate" or "he hasn't to eat the chocolate" Q = "has he to eat the chocolate?" or "has he not to eat the chocolate?" or "hasn't he to eat the chocolate?"
St = "he has" or "he has not" or "he hasn't" Q = "has he?" or "has he not?" or "hasn't he?"
In these twelve sentences, "has" is the verb have used as an 'auxiliary verb'. These examples show the three characteristics of an auxiliary verb: an auxiliary verb in modal form can precede its N(nom) subject, for example to make a question; an auxiliary verb in modal form can be negated by a following "not" or by an attached "n't"; and an auxiliary verb can be used without its expected complement with unchanged meaning.
The statement:-
for example, is not normally changed into a question as "stops he the child eating the chocolate" or made negative as "he stops not the child eating the chocolate" or "he stopsn't the child eating the chocolate". If the statement is shortened to "he stops", the meaning of "stops" changes. In these examples, "stops" is the verb stop used as an 'ordinary' as opposed to 'auxiliary' verb.St = "he stops the child eating the chocolate"
The symbols Axverb and Overb will be introduced for 'auxiliary verb' and'ordinary verb'. A V expression can be incomplete. Incompleteness is shown by a suffix which states what is missing and will be cancelled when what is missing has been provided. An Axverb or Overb cannot be incomplete but can 'expect a complement'. The complement which an Axverb or Overb expects will be shown by a suffix-in-brackets, and it will be the rule that a suffix-in-brackets cannot be cancelled.
The verb eat is named in Grammar 4 an incomplete V requiring for completion an N(acc), or a complete V:-
The verb eat will now be named an ordinary verb expecting an N(acc) complement:-V(v')N(acc) = eat(v') V(v') = eat(v')
or an ordinary verb expecting no complement. If an Overb expects no complement, this will be shown by an empty pair of brackets:-Overb(v')(N(acc)) = eat(v')
Overb(v')() = eat(v')
The definitions in Grammar 4 which name the verb stop will similarly be replaced. The verb stop can be an ordinary verb expecting as its complement the string N(acc)+V(ing) , or an N(acc) alone, or a V(ing) alone, or expecting no complement:-
Overb(v')(N(acc)+V(ing)) = stop(v') Overb(v')(N(acc)) = stop(v') Overb(v')(V(ing)) = stop(v') Overb(v')() = stop(v')
A VX can be an Overb(X):-
where X is any expression or string of expressions or no expression. The form time person and number, v', of the VX are those of the Overb(X):-VX = Overb(X)
V(v')X = Overb(v')(X)
The definitions in Grammar 4 which name the verb have:-
will be replaced. When have expects a V(ed) complement, as in "has he eaten the chocolate?" and "he has not", it is an auxiliary verb:-V((i/e)',t',p',nr')V(ed) = have((i/e)',t',p',nr') V(v')"to"+V(e) = have(v') V(v')N(acc) = have(v')
When have expects an N(acc), as in "has he the chocolate?" and "he hasn't", it is an auxiliary verb:-Axverb((i/e)',t',p',nr')(V(ed)) = have((i/e)',t',p',nr')
When have in the indicative mood expects "to"+V(e) , as in "has he to eat it?" and "he hasn't", it is an auxiliary verb:Axverb(v')(N(acc)) = have(v')
But when have in e ed or ing non-modal form expects "to"+V(e), it lacks a required characteristic of an auxiliary verb, it is not normally used with its expected complement left out. For example, "he has had to eat the chocolate" cannot be shortened to "he has had". When have in a non-modal form expects "to"+V(e) it will be named an ordinary verb. The symbol nm for 'non-modal' will be added to the form branch of the v restrictor tree:-Axverb(i,t',p',nr')("to"+V(e)) = have(i,t',p',nr')
This is the v restrictor tree for Grammar 5.
The verb have in a non-modal form, nm', can be an ordinary verb expecting "to"+V(e) :-
Overb(nm')("to"+V(e)) = have(nm')
The statement "he has to stop", for example, can be shortened to "he has" or"he has to", if it will be clear to a reader or listener what has been left out. The statement "has has had to stop" can be shortened to "has has had to". The symbol Tv will name what is typically the string "to"+V(e) , but may be the word "to" alone, complementing a verb:-
If the V(e) is incomplete, the Tv is incomplete and requires for its completion what the incomplete V(e) requires, X. The word "to" used alone is a complete Tv:-Tv = "to" + V(e) or "to"
The word "to" can be preceded by "not", as in "hasn't he not to stop?" and "he has not to":-TvX = "to" + V(e)X Tv = "to"
This is the description of Tv for Grammar 5. The definitions:-TvX = "not to" + V(e)X Tv = "not to" TvX = "to" + V(e)X Tv = "to"
can now be replaced using Tv, by the shorter more powerful definitions:-Axverb(i,t',p',nr')("to"+V(e)) = have(i,t',i',nr') Overb(nm')("to"+V(e)) = have(nm')
Axverb(i,t',p',nr')(Tv) = have(i,t',p',nr') Overb(nm')(Tv) = have(nm')
An auxiliary verb expecting a complement X can be an incomplete V requiring X for completion, or can be used without its expected complement, as a complete V:-
In these definitions, v' is any form time person and number, and X is any expression or expressions or none. In practice, every auxiliary verb expects a complement. To make it clear that two alternative names are being given to one expression, these two definitions will be presented as one bracketed definition:-V(v')X = Axverb(v')(X) V(v') = Axverb(v')(X)
An auxiliary verb in modal form, for this chapter the indicative mood, can be negated by a following "not" or an attached "n't", as in "he has not eaten the chocolate" "he has not" "he hasn't eaten it" and "he hasn't". The plus symbol + is used to string together two expressions which are written with a space between them. The string Axverb(i)(X) + "not" can be a V(i)X or a complete V(i):-
To string together two expressions which are written with no space between them, for example an auxiliary verb and "n't", a star symbol * will be used:-V(i)X = Axverb(i)(X) + "not" V(i) = Axverb(i)(X) + "not"
The time person and number of the incomplete or complete V are those of the Axverb:-V(i)X = Axverb(i)(X) * "n't" V(i) = Axverb(i)(X) * "n't"
To make it clear that two alternative names are being given to each of these two strings, these four definitions will be presented as a single bracketed two-pronged definition:-V(i,t',p',nr')X = Axverb(i,t',p',nr')(X) + "not" V(i,t',p',nr') = Axverb(i,t',p',nr')(X) + "not" V(i,t',p',nr')X = Axverb(i,t',p',nr')(X) * "n't" V(i,t',p',nr') = Axverb(i,t',p',nr')(X) * "n't"
The word "not", which can follow an auxiliary verb in a mood, can precede a V in a non-modal form, e ed or ing. For example in "he has not eaten the chocolate", "not" may be attached to the Axverb "has" or to the V(ed) "eaten the chocolate". In "he stops not eating the chocolate", "not" cannot be attached to the Overb "stops" and must be attached to the V(ing) "eating the chocolate". The string "not"+V(nm)X will be named a V(nm)X:-
This is a 'recursive' definition. The symbol being defined recurs in its own definition. The definition allows more than one "not" to be used, as in "he has not not stoppped". The description of V is now:-V(nm')X = "not" + V(nm')X
This is the description of V for Grammar 5.
An auxiliary verb in the indicative mood, expecting a complement X, and followed by an N in the nominative case can be an incomplete Q or 'question' requiring X for completion, or can be a complete Q or 'question'. The Axverb has the person and number of the N(nom):-
as in "has he the chocolate?" and "has he?". These two definitions will be presented as a single bracketed definition:-QX = Axverb(i,p',nr')(X) + N(nom,p',nr') Q = Axverb(i,p',nr')(X) + N(nom,p',nr')
A question can be made negative by attaching "n't" to the Axverb, as in "hasn't he the chocolate?" and "hasn't he?", or by adding "not" after the N(nom), as in "has he not the chocolate?" and "has he not?":-
This definition is the description of Q or 'question' for Grammar 5.
For example:-
The new description of Text, the description of St from Grammar 4, the new description of Q or 'question', the descriptions of N and Pronoun from Grammar 4, the new descriptions of V Axverb Overb and Tv, the descriptions of eat have and stop from Grammar 4, the n restrictor tree from Grammar 4, and the v restrictor tree with the new nm symbol, make Grammar 5.
Chapter 5 introduces the glossing of the definitions for Axverb and Overb to show verbs' meanings.
GRAMMAR 5
Text = St or Q or Text + Text StX = N(nom,p',nr') + V(i,p',nr')X
CHAPTER 5 verbs' meanings
Before you can know what a word means, you must know how it is used. Naming the ways in which words are used is the business of a grammar. In:-
"have", representing the verb have, is complemented by the N(acc) "the chocolate", the Tv "to eat it", and the N(acc)+V(e) string "us eat it". The verb have has a different meaning in each of these three statements."they have the chocolate" "they have to eat it" "they have us eat it"
In "they have the chocolate", have can be an auxiliary verb, expecting an N(acc) complement, as named in Grammar 5:-
The meaning of have in this 'role', the role of Axverb expecting an N(acc), is be+"in possession of". A 'gloss' to show this meaning can be added to the definition:-Axverb(v')(N(acc)) = have(v')
where be is a word from the list "am" "are" "be" "been" "being""is" "was" and "were":-Axverb(v')(N(acc)) = have(v') be(v')"in possession of"+N(acc)
be(i,pr,1p,sg) = "am" be(i,pr,2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl) = "are" be(e) = "be" be(ed) = "been" be(ing) = "being" be(i,pr,3p,sg) = "is" be(i,pa,1p/3p,sg) = "was" be(i,pa,2p,sg)/(i,pa,pl) = "were"
The gloss to the definition, above, which names have an Axverb, uses be, itself an uxiliary verb, and treats "in possession of"+N(acc) as the complement of be. This is because an auxiliary verb is sometimes separated from its complement, for example when it precedes its N(nom) subject in a question. The Q "have I the chocolate?" means "am I in posession of the chocolate?".
The St "they have the chocolate" can also mean "they take possession of the chocolate", in other words "they help themselves to it". If "they have the chocolate" means "they are in possession of the chocolate", it may draw a response such as "they haven't" or "have they?", so "have" is an auxiliary verb, as provided for in the definition above. But if "they have the chocolate" means "they take possession of the chocolate", it cannot be shortened to "they have", and it might draw a response such as "do they?" or "they don't". When "have" means "take possession of", it is an Overb not an Axverb:-
where:-Overb(v')(N(acc)) = have(v') take(v')+"possession of"N(acc)
The gloss to the definition for Overb above uses take, itself an Overb, and treats N(acc) as the complement of the phrase take+"possession of".take(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e) = "take" take(ed) = "taken" take(i,pr,3p,sg) = "takes" take(ing) = "taking" take(i,pa) = "took"
The statement "he has to stop" means "he is obliged to stop". The definitions for Axverb(i) expecting a Tv and Overb(nm) expecting a Tv in Grammar 5 can be glossed:-
Axverb(i,t',p',nr')(Tv) = have(i,t',p',nr') be(i,t',p',nr')"obliged"+Tv Overb(nm')(Tv) = have(nm') be(nm')+"obliged"Tv
When have expects a V(ed):-
as in "he has stopped", have+V(ed) means very roughly be+"finished with"+V(ing) . In "he has stopped", the stopping is over and finished and, in that sense, perfect. But:-Axverb((i/e)',t',p',nr')(V(ed)) = have((i/e)',t',p',nr')
is too inexact a gloss and will not be used. The definiton will remain unglossed. The verb have as an Axverb expecting a V(ed) is 'a short expression in constant use with no close equivalent in the language'. This definition like, for example, the definitions for Pronoun in Grammar 5 could no doubt be glossed accurately and concisely using a second language.be"finished with"+V(ing)
The definitions which name eat an Overb expecting an N(acc), and an Overb expecting no complement, can be glossed:-
where consume can name the words "consume" "consumed" "consumes" and "consuming". But consume is a 'regular verb', represented by four words only, with the word "consumed" serving as the verb's indicative past and ed non-modal form. In order to avoid the need to describe each regular verb individually, symbols such as :e will be introduced. Between double quotation marks, :e will name e ed es and ing:-Overb(v')(N(acc)) = eat(v') consume(v')N(acc)+"as food" Overb(v')() = eat(v') consume(v')+"food"
For example, "consum:e(i,pr,1p,sg)" will generate "consume", and "consum:e(ing)" will generate "consuming". In the glosses to the two definitions which name eat(v'), "consum:e(v')" will be used:-":e(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e)" = "e" ":e(i,pa)/(ed)" = "ed" ":e(i,pr,3p.sg)" = "es" ":e(ing)" = "ing"
Overb(v')(N(acc)) = eat(v') "consum:e(v')"N(acc)+"as food" Overb(v')() = eat(v') "consum:e(v') food"
The verb stop, described in Grammars 4 and 5, and named Overb in four definitions in Grammar 5, is regular also. The symbol :p will name, between double quotation marks, p pped pping and ps:-
The definitions which name stop will be replaced by definitions which name "sto:p":-":p(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e)" = "p" ":p(i,pa)/(ed)" = "pped" ":p(ing)" = "pping" ":p(i,pr,3p,sg)" = "ps"
The description of stop, in Grammars 4 and 5, will no longer be used. The definitions which name "sto:p" can be glossed. In "we stop them eating", "sto:p them eating" means "caus:e them to cease eating":-Overb(v')(N(acc)+V(ing)) = "sto:p(v')" Overb(v')(N(acc)) = "sto:p(v')" Overb(v')(V(ing)) = "sto:p(v')" Overb(v')() = "sto:p(v')"
In "we stop them" "sto:p them" means "caus:e them to cease movement/action":-Overb(v')(N(acc)+V(ing)) = "sto:p(v')" "caus:e(v')"N(acc)+"to cease"+V(ing)
In "we stop eating", "sto:p eating" means "ceas:e eating", and in "we stop" as a complete statement, "sto:p" means "ceas:e movement/action":-Overb(v')(N(acc)) = "sto:p(v')" "caus:e(v')"N(acc)+"to cease movement/action"
The newly glossed definitions for Axverb and Overb, and the new descriptions of be take ":e" and ":p", are repeated below in Grammar 6.Overb(v')(V(ing)) = "sto:p(v')" "ceas:e(v')"V(ing) Overb(v')() = "sto:p(v')" "ceas:e(v') movement/action"
A description such as that of the verb be above, repeated below in Grammar 6, is a 'function'. Input a set of restrictions from the v restrictor tree to be, and be outputs the required word from the list "am" "are" "be" "been" "being" "is" "was" and "were". Any one input to a function must produce one output only. It is permissible for two or more inputs to produce the same output, but any one input must not produce two or more alternative outputs. So seemingly the descriptions of Axverb and Overb cannot be functions. But if the input to, for example, Overb is a set of restrictors from the v tree, and a verb, for example "sto:p" as restricted, and the information that "sto:p" is complemented by, for example, a V(ing), then Overb outputs the meaning of that verb with that complement, and is a function.For example, on the authority of Grammar 6 below, it is possible to parse a string of words and, at the same time, generate a gloss to the parse:-
"I" and "had" are recognised together as a Pronoun, nominative 1st-person and singular, and the verb have, indicative past and with the first person and singular number of "I". The definition in Grammar 6 which names "I" is not glossed, so "I" is repeated to begin the gloss to the parse. The meaning of have is not yet known.
In the parse, N is substituted for Pronoun; the verb have and "to" and "stop" are recognised together as an Axverb expecting a Tv, the word "to" and the e non-modal form of the verb "sto:p". The meaning of have as an Axverb(Tv), be"obliged"+Tv, is added to the gloss to the parse:-
In the gloss to the parse, be(i,pa,1p,sg) generates "was", "obliged" moves up to the line, and Tv generates "to"+V(e). In the parse, VTv is substituted for Axverb(Tv), and "sto:p(e)" "them" and "eating" are recognised together as an Overb expecting the string N(acc)+V(ing) , a Pronoun in the accusative case, and the verb eat in ing non-modal form. The meaning of "sto:p" expecting N(acc)+V(ing) is added to the gloss to the parse, and "them" is copied -
,
In the parse, St is substituted for N(nom,1p,sg) + V(i,pa,1p,sg), Tv becomes a suffix to St, V(e)N(acc)+V(ing) is substituted for Overb(e)(N(acc)+V(ing)), N is substituted for Pronoun, and eat(ing) is recognised alone as an Overb expecting no complement. In the gloss to the parse, "to" moves up to the line, "caus:e(e)" replaces V(e) and generates "cause", "them" replaces N(acc), and "to cease" moves up to the line. The meaning of eat(ing) as an Overb() is added.:-
In the parse, Tv is substituted for "to"+V(e), N(acc)+V(ing) becomes a suffix to Tv, and V(ing) with no suffix is substituted for Overb(ing)(). In the gloss to the parse, "consum:e(ing) food" replaces V(ing), and "consum:e(ing)" generates "consuming":-
In the parse, Tv cancels Tv and N(acc)+V(ing) cancels N(acc)+V(ing) leaving St with no suffix, a complete statement. And "had" and "I" are recognised together as the verb have in the indicative past and a Pronoun in the nominative, both 1st-person singular:-
In the parse, have must be recognised alone as an Axverb expecting a Tv, because that is what it was in the preceding statement - that is its 'current use' - and N is substituted for Pronoun. In the gloss to the parse, the meaning of have as an Axverb expecting a Tv, and "n't" and "I" are added:-
In the parse, Text is substituted for St. The string Axverb(i)(Tv) * "n't" + N(nom) can be an incomplete question requiring a Tv for completion, or a complete question. Since no Tv is provided, the string must be a complete question. In the gloss to the parse, be(i,pa,1p,sg) generates "was" and "obliged"+Tv is discarded. In the parse, Text is substituted for Q, and Text + Text counts as a single Text. The parse and its gloss are finished.
The parse and gloss above shows how recognition and understanding spark along a string of words. A verb needs to be recognised twice, once in relation to its N(nom) subject, or to the expression of which it begins the complement, and once in relation to its own complement if any. Only when the second recognition has taken place is the verb's meaning known. The second recognition bringsunderstanding.
The star symbol * is used to link two expressions which are written with no space between them. For example be(i,pa,1p,sg) * "n't" gives "was" * "n't", which gives "wasn't". But "am" * "n't" does not give "amn't", and Standard English frowns on "ain't", for some reason. The string "am" * "n't" as an incomplete or complete V(i) gives "am not". The string "am" * "n't I" as an incomplete or complete Q(i) gives, surprisingly, "aren't I". Link tables to show this can be set out as follows:-
These tables are repeated below as part of Grammar 6. Grammar 6 sums up the position reached in Chapter 5, and is the starting point for Chapter 6. Chapter 6 introduces reflexive-pronouns such as "yourself" "myself" and "themselves".
GRAMMAR 6
Text = St or Q or Text + Text StX = N(nom,p',nr') + V(i,p',nr')X
CHAPTER 6 character and reflection
In:-
"himself" is a reflexive-pronoun which reflects the third person, singular number, and masculine gender, of the pronoun "he". The pronoun and reflexive-pronoun refer to the same one person. In:-"he stops himself"
the pronouns "he" and "him" refer to different people."he stops him"
In "he eats the chocolate by himself" and "he eats the chocolate on his own", "by himself" and "on his own" mean "alone". In "he eats the chocolate himself", "himself" means "in person", making it clear the "he" does not leave the task of eating the chocolate to anyone else. In these three examples, "by himself" "on his own" and "himself" are adverbial expressions, attached to the V(i) "eats the chocolate" or to the St "he eats the chocolate". The symbol Av will be used for 'adverbial':-
The symbol Reflexive will name the reflexive-pronouns:-Av = "by hmself" "alone" or "on his own" "alone" or "himself" "in person"
A reflexive-pronoun has person, 1p 2p or 3p, and number, singular or plural. The 3rd-person singular reflexive-pronouns also have masculine feminine or neuter gender:-Av = "by" + Reflexive "alone" or "on his own" "alone" or Reflexive "in person" Reflexive = "herself" or "himself" or "itself" or "myself" or "ourselves" or "themselves" or "yourself" or "yourselves"
This is the description of Reflexive for Grammar 7. The 3rd-person singular pronouns similarly show gender:-Reflexive(3p,sg,fem) = "herself" Reflexive(3p,sg,masc) = "himself" Reflexive(3p,sg,neut) = "itself" Reflexive(1p,sg) = "myself" Reflexive(1p,pl) = "ourselves" Reflexive(3p,pl) = "themselves" Reflexive(2p,sg) = "yourself" Reflexive(2p,pl) = "yourselves"
The N expressions "the child" and "the chocolate" are masculine-or-feminine and neuter respectively:-Pronoun(nom,3p,sg,masc) = "he" Pronoun(acc,3p,sg,fem) = "her" Pronoun(acc,3p,sg,masc) = "him" Pronoun(nom,1p,sg) = "I" Pronoun(nom/acc,3p,sg,neut) = "it" Pronoun(acc,1p,sg) = "me" Pronoun(nom,3p,sg,fem) = "she" Pronoun(acc,3p,pl) = "them" Pronoun(nom,3p,pl) = "they" Pronoun(acc,1p,pl) = "us" Pronoun(nom,1p,pl) = "we" Pronoun(nom/acc,2p) = "you"
The gender symbols masc fem and neut will be added to the n and v restrictor trees, grouped under the symbol gr for 'gender'. In order to shorten references to person number and gender, the symbol cr for 'character' will be introduced. An expression's person number and gender will be its'character':-N(nom/acc,3p,sg,masc/fem) = "the child" N(nom/acc,3p,sg,neut) = "the chocolate"
In the Av "on his own", "his" is a pronoun in the genitive case. The genitive pronouns are "her" "his" "its" "my" "our" "your" and "their". The symbol gen for 'genitive case' will be added to the case branch of the n restrictor tree:-
:-Using the symbol gen for 'genitive case':-
This is the description of Pronoun for Grammar 7. The description of Av or 'adverbial' can now be:-Av = "on" + Pronoun(gen) + "own" "alone" Pronoun(nom,3p,sg,masc) = "he" Pronoun(acc/gen,3p,sg,fem) = "her" Pronoun(acc,3p,sg,masc) = "him" Pronoun(gen,3p,sg,masc) = "his" Pronoun(nom,1p,sg) = "I" Pronoun(nom/acc,3p,sg,neut) = "it" Pronoun(gen,3p,sg,neut) = "its" Pronoun(acc,1p,sg) = "me" Pronoun(gen,1p,sg) = "my" Pronoun(gen,1p,pl) = "our" Pronoun(nom,3p,sg,fem) = "she" Pronoun(gen,3p,pl) = "their" Pronoun(acc,3p,pl) = "them" Pronoun(nom,3p,pl) = "they" Pronoun(acc,1p,pl) = "us" Pronoun(nom,1p,pl) = "we" Pronoun(nom/acc,2p) = "you" Pronoun(gen,2p) = "your"
The Av has the character cr' of the reflexive-pronoun or genitive pronoun within it:-Av = "by" + Reflexive "alone" or "on" + Pronoun(gen) + "own" "alone" or Reflexive "in person"
Av(cr') = "by" + Reflexive(cr') "alone" or "on" + Pronoun(gen,cr') + "own" "alone" or Reflexive(cr') "in person"
The definition in Grammar 6:-
will be replaced. The N(nom) and V(i)X which make an StX match in character cr':-StX = N(nom,p',nr') + V(i,p',nr')X
The StX has the character of its N(nom) and V(i)X:-StX = N(nom,cr') + V(i,cr')X
Similarly, the auxiliary verb and N(nom) in an incomplete or complete question match in character, and the QX or Q has that character:-St(cr')X = N(nom,cr') + V(i,cr')X
And the character of an incomplete or complete V is that of its auxiliary or ordinary verb:-
where v' is now any form time and character.
When, for example, the verb "sto:p" is an Overb expecting an N(acc):-
there is no restriction on the character of the expected N(acc). It is possible to say "I stop them" "I stop you" and "I stop me" or "I stop myself". What is restricted is the character which the N(acc) may reflect. It is normal to say "I stop myself" but not "I stop themselves". Two character restrictors, or sets of restrictors, may be needed after N. The first, which will always be followed by a semi-colon and will precede all other restrictors, will show the character which and only which the N may reflect. The second will show the N expression's own character. A Reflexive can be an N in the accusative case:-Overb(v')(N(acc)) = "sto:p(v')" "caus:e(v')"N(acc)+"to cease movement/action"
which reflects and itself has the character cr' of the Reflexive:-N(acc) = Reflexive
The phrases "each other" and "one another" are N expressions in the accusative case, which reflect and themselves have any person p' and plural number pl:-N(cr;acc,cr') = Reflexive(cr')
as in "we stop each other", and "I have them stop one another". The description of N is now:-N(p',pl;acc,p',pl) = "each other" or "one another"
where n' is now any case and character. This is the description of N for Grammar 7.N(p',pl;acc,p',pl) = "each other" or "one another" N(n') = Pronoun(n') N(cr';acc,cr') = Reflexive(cr') N(nom/acc,3p,sg,masc/fem) = "the child" N(nom/acc,3p,sg,neut) = "the chocolate"
When eat have and "sto:p" expect an N(acc):-
the expected N(acc) expression's own character is not restricted, but the N(acc) may reflect the character of the Axverb or Overb and only that character. In these definitions, the restrictor v' will be replaced by restrictors for form time and character, f',t',cr', so cr' can be used to refer to the character which the expected N(acc) may reflect. In the suffixes-in-brackets to Axverb and Overb, N(acc) will become N(cr';acc). This change will be made in the definitions only, not in the glosses to the definitions:-Axverb(v')(N(acc)) = have(v') be(v')"in possession of"+N(acc) Overb(v')(N(acc)) = eat(v') "consum:e(v')"N(acc)+"as food" or have(v') take(v')+"possession of"N(acc) or "sto:p(v')" "caus:e(v')"N(acc)+"to cease movement/action"
Axverb(f',t',cr')(N(cr;acc)) = have(f',t'.cr') be(f',t',cr')"in possession of"+N(acc) Overb(f',t',cr')(N(cr';acc)) = eat(f',t',cr') "consum:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"as food" or have(f',t',cr') take(f',t',cr')+"possession of"N(acc) or "sto:p(f',t',cr')" "caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to cease movement/action"
When "sto:p" expects the string N(acc) + V(ing) :-
as in "he stops them eating it", and when have expects N(acc) + V(e) :-Overb(v')(N(acc)+V(ing)) = "sto:p(v')" "caus:e(v')"N(acc)+"to cease"+V(ing)
as in "he has them eat it", the N(acc) may reflect the character of the Overb only:-Overb(v')(N(acc)+V(e)) = have(v') "caus:e(v')"N(acc)+"to"+V(e)
as in "he stops himself eating it" and "they have themselves eat it". The N(acc) is the subject of the V expression which follows it, and the character of the N(acc) is the character of the V, as in "he stops it eating itself" amd "we had him stop himself". The N(acc) expression's own character will be referred to using the cr symbol double tagged cr", and cr" will be the character of the V which follows the N(acc):-Overb(f',t',cr')(N(cr';acc)+V(ing)) = "sto:p(f',t',cr')" "caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to cease"+V(ing) Overb(f'.t',cr')(N(cr';acc)+V(e)) = have(f',t',cr') "caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to"+V(e)
For example:-Overb(f',t',cr')(N(cr';acc,cr")+V(ing,cr")) = "sto:p(f',t',cr')" "caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to cease"+V(ing) Overb(f'.t',cr')(N(cr';acc,cr")+V(e,cr")) = have(f',t',cr') "caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to"+V(e)
N is substituted for Pronoun. and have "her" and "stop" are recognised together as an Overb expecting N(acc) + V(e), a Pronoun in the accusative case, and the verb "sto:p" in e form. The short word "has" has been replaced by have(i,pr,3p,sg), which must now be replaced by:-
Overb(i,pr,3p,sg,masc)
expecting:-
N(3p,sg,masc;acc,3p,sg,fem)+V(e,3p,sg,fem)
In the complement of the Overb, the N(acc) may reflect the 3p,sg,masc character of the Overb, which is that of its subject "he", only. But the Pronoun(acc) "her" does not reflect character. In the suffix-in-brackets to Overb, after N, the symbols 3p,sg,masc; can be left out as not relevant to this parse. In the gloss to the parse, the meaning of have as an Overb expecting N(acc)+V(e) is added, and the Pronoun "her" is copied. The meaning of "sto:p(e)" is not yet known:-
V is substituted for Overb and the suffix-in-brackets loses its brackets, N is substituted for Pronoun, and "sto:p" and "herself" are recognised together as an Overb, expecting an N(acc) which may reflect the character 3rd-person singular feminine only, and a Reflexive 3rd-person singular feminine in character. In the gloss, "caus:e(i,pr,3p,sg)" generates "causes", "her" replaces N(acc), "to" moves up to the line, the meaning of "sto:p(e)" as an Overb expecting an N(acc) is added, and "herself" is copied.:-
St is substituted for N(nom) + V(i), N(acc) cancels N(acc), V is substituted for Overb, and N(acc) is substituted for Reflexive. In the gloss, "caus:e(e)" generates "cause", which replaces V(e), "herself" replaces N(acc), and "to cease movement or action!" moves up to the line. The gloss is now finished. The parse simplifies by cancellation to St, for which Text can be substiituted:-
In, for example,"he has had to stop himself", the Reflexive "himself" reflects the 3p,sg,masc character of "he". The N(nom) "he" is the subject of the V(i) "has had to stop himself", the V(ed) "had to stop himself", the Tv "to stop himself", and the V(e) "stop himself", and each of these expressions has the 3rd-person singular masculine character of "he". When an Axverb or Overb expects a V, the character of the V is that of the verb, which is that of the verb's N(nom) or N(acc) subject. When have expects a V(ed), the character of have is also that of the V(ed):-
When "sto:p" expects a V(ing), the character of "sto:p" is also that of the V(ing):-Axverb((i/e)',t',cr')(V(ed,cr')) = have((i/e)',t',cr')
Overb(f'.t',cr')(V(ing,cr')) = "sto:p(f',t',cr)" "ceas:e(f',t',cr)"V(ing)
When have expects a Tv, as in "he has to stop himself", the character of the Tv is that of have:-
The character of a Tv is the character of a V(e) within it:-Axverb(i,t',cr')(Tv(cr')) = have(i,t',cr') be(i,t',cr')"obliged"+Tv Overb(nm',cr')(Tv(cr'}) = have(nm') be(nm')+"obliged"Tv
This is the description of Tv for Grammar 7.Tv(cr')X = "not to" + V(e,cr')X Tv = "not to" Tv(cr')X = "to" + V(e,cr')X Tv = "to"
In "he eats the chocolate by himself" "he eats the chocolate on his own" and "he eats the chocolate himself", "by himself" "on his own" and "himself" do not complement "eats" but are attached to the V(i) "eats the chocolate" or to the St "he eats the chocolate" as Av or adverbial expressions. In "he eats, by himself, the chocolate" and "he eats, on his own, the chocolate", the Av expressions can be attached to the incomplete St "he eats" or the incomplete V "eats". The third example can be rephrased "he eats, himself, the chocolate", though because the reflexive-pronoun "himself" can be an N(acc), this makes a confusing statement. An Av can be attached to the beginning or end of an incomplete or complete statement. The strings Av + StX and StX + Av will be named StX. The Av is restricted to the character cr' of the incomplete or complete St:-
This, the description of St for Grammar 7, is a three-pronged definition in which the first and last prongs are recursive. The symbol being defined recurs within its own definition. This permits an unlimited number of adverbials to be attached to an StX. For example:-St(cr')X = Av(cr') + St(cr')X or N(nom,cr') + V(i,cr')X or St(cr')X + Av(cr')
An incomplete St, or Q or V, can be completed only once, but can have an unlimited number of adverbials attached to it."I ate the chocolate by myself myself" = St(1p,sg) + Av(1p,sg) + Av(1p,sg) = St(1p,sg) + Av(1p,sg) = St(1p,sg) = Text
The strings Av + QX and QX + Av will be named QX. The Av is restricted to the character of the Q:-
This is the description of Q for Grammar 7.
In "by himself he ate the chocolate", the Av "by himself" may be attached to the St "he ate the chocolate", or to the incomplete St "he ate". In "he ate, on his own, the chocolate, the Av "on his own" can be attached to the StN(acc) "he ate" or to the VN(acc) "ate". In "he on his own ate the chocolate, the Av can be attached to "ate" as an incomplete V(i), or to the complete V(i) "ate the chocolate". The strings Av + VX and VX + Av will be named VX expressions:-
The Av is restricted to the character of the VXVX = Av + VX or VX + Av
In this definition, v' is any form time and character, though only adverbials restricted by character have so far been named. The description of V for Grammar 7 is:-V(v')X = Av(v') + V(v')X or V(v')X + Av(v')
The statement:-
can be parsed, as above, by substituting St(1p,sg) for the string Av(1p,sg)+St(1p,sg) twice. Alternatively, the string Av(1p,sg)+Av(1p,sg) can be treated as a single Av:-"myself on my own I ate the chocolate" = Av(1p,sg) + Av(1p,sg) + St(1p,sg) = Av(1p,sg) + St(1p,sg) = St(1p,sg) = Text
The two adverbials must have the same character:-Av = Av + Av
The example can now be parsed:-Av(cr') = Av(cr') + Av(cr')
The description of Av or 'adverbial' for Grammar 7 is:-"myself on my own I ate the chocolate" = Av(1p,sg) + Av(1p,sg) + St(1p,sg) = Av(1p,sg) + St(1p,sg) = St(1p,sg) = Text
Av(cr') = "by" + Reflexive(cr') "alone" or "on" + Pronoun(gen,cr') + "own" "alone" or Reflexive(cr') "in person" or Av(cr') + Av(cr')
In "I behave myself", "behave" is followed by a Reflexive of the same character. The statement can be shortened to "I behave". Each statement means "I" act correctly. The string "behav:e"+Reflexive, and "behav:e" alone, will be named Overb expecting no complement:-
The definition naming "behav:e"+Reflexive an Overb expecting no complement prevents the insertion of an adverbial between the verb and the Reflexive. For example, if "I behave myself on my own" is rephrased "I behave on my own myself", "myself" becomes an Av meaning "in person", and the meaning of the statement has been changed.Overb(f',t',cr')() = "behav:e(f',t',cr')" + Reflexive(cr') act(f',t',cr')+"correctly" Overb(v')() = "behav:e(v')" act(v')+"correctly"
In the glosses to the two definitions above, act can generate "act" "acted" "acting" and "acts". The verb act is regular. To avoid the need to describe each such regular verb individually, the symbol : will be introduced to name 'nothing' ed ing and s:-
In the two glosses, "act:" can replace act:-":(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e)" = "" ":(i,pa)/(ed)" = "ed" ":(ing)" = "ing" ":(i,pr,3p,sg)" = "s"
These two definitions for Overb, and the description of ":", are repeated in Grammar 7 below.Overb(f',t',cr')() = "behav:e(f',t',cr')" + Reflexive(cr') "act:(f',t',cr') correctly" Overb(v')() = "behav:e(v')" "act(v') correctly"
In "they enjoy themselves", "enjoy themselves" is the string "enjoy:"+Reflexive which can be named Overb expecting no complement:-
In "he enjoys the chocolate" and "he enjoys eating it", the verb "enjoy:" is complemented by an N(acc), and by a V(ing):-Overb(f',t',cr')() = "enjoy:(f',t',cr')" + Reflexive(cr') have(f',t',cr')+"pleasure"
Overb(f',t',cr')(N(cr';acc)) = "enjoy:(f',t',cr')" have(f',t',cr')+"pleasure from"N(acc) Overb(f',t',cr')(Ving.cr')) = "enjoy:(f',t',cr')" have(f',t',cr)+"pleasure from"V(ing)
Grammar 7 sums up the position which has been reached in this chapter, and is the starting point for Chapter 7, which introduces the dynamic static and perfect aspects of verbs and adverbials
GRAMMAR 7
Text = St or Q or Text + Text St(cr')X = Av(cr') + St(cr')X or N(nom,cr') + V(i,cr')X or St(cr')X + Av(cr')
CHAPTER 7 aspect
In the statement:-
"happily" is an adverb which means either "joyfully" or "fortunately". In:-"happily he ate the chocolate"
the adverb "happily" means "fortunately". The symbol Adv will be introduced to name adverbs such as "happily". An Av or 'adverbial' may be an Adv:-"happily he had to"
In:-Av = Adv Adv = "happily"
the words "since he eats the chocolate" are the string "since"+St used as an adverbial clause:-"since he eats the chocolate, we eat it"
and "since" means "because". In:-Av = "since" + St
"since" means either "later than when" or "because"."since he ate it, we have not eaten"
The meaning of an Av and Adv such as "happily" or an Av such as "since he ate it" depends on the 'aspect' of the incomplete or complete St Q or V which the Av is attached to. The three aspects are 'dynamic' 'static' and 'perfect'. A verb is dynamic if it narrates action; a verb is static if it announces a state-of-affairs; the verb have is perfect when it expects a V(ed) complement and announces that an action or state-of-affairs is over finished and, in that sense, perfect. The symbols a for 'aspect', dyn for 'dynamic aspect', sta for 'static aspect', and per for 'perfect aspect', will be added to the v restrictor tree, after form and time, and before character:-
The verb have as an auxiliary verb expecting a V(ed), as in "we have eaten it", has perfect aspect:-
The verb have as an Axverb expecting an N(acc) is of static aspect:-Axverb((i/e)',t',per,cr')(V(ed,cr')) = have((i/e)',t',cr')
because it announces a state-of-affairs. When have is an ordinary verb expecting an N(acc) and meaning take+"possession of", it narrates action and is dynamic:-Axverb(f',t',sta,cr')N(cr';acc)) = have(f',t',cr') be(f',t',cr)"in possession of"+N(acc)
When have in the indicative mood is an Axverb expecting a Tv, as in "we have to eat it", or an ordinary verb in non-modal form expecting a Tv, as in "we have had to eat it", it is static:-Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')(N(cr';acc)) = have(f',t',cr') take(f',t',cr')+"possession of"N(acc)
Axverb(i,t',sta,cr')(Tv(cr')) = have(i,t',cr') be(i,t',cr')"obliged"+Tv Overb(nm',sta,cr')(Tv(cr')) = have(nm',) be(nm')+"obliged"Tv
The Adverb "happily" can mean "joyfully" only when it is attached to a dynamic StX QX or VX:-
Adv(dyn) = "happily" "joyfully"
The use of "happily" meaning "fortunately" is not restricted:-
Adv = "happily" "fortunately"
The adverb "angrily", for example, is dynamic, and "luckily" is unrestricted by aspect:-
Adv(dyn) = "angrily" "crossly"
or "happily" "joyfully"
Adv = "happily" "fortunately"
or "luckily" "fortunately"This is the description of Adv for Grammar 8
An Av may be an Adv alone or preceded by "very". The Av has the aspect a' of the Adv:-
Av(a') = Adv(a') or "very" + Adv(a') "extremely"+Adv
In the example "since he ate it, we have not eaten", "since" is followed by a statement in past time, St(pa), and the adverbial clause is attached to "we have not" or "we have not eaten", in which "have" is of perfect aspect. The string "since"+St(pa) can be an Av(per) meaning "later than when"+St:-
Av(per) = "since" + St(pa) "later than when"+St
As in the example "since he eats the chocolate, we eat it", the string "since"+St, in which the time of the St is not restricted, can be an Av unrestricted by aspect, meaning "because"+St:-
Av = "since" + St "because"+St
No X symbols will be added to the latter two definitions for Av. During parsing, Av can be substituted for "since"+St only when the St is complete.
Two Av expressions strung together make a single Av, which has the aspect and character of the expressions in the string:-
For example:-Av(a',cr') = Av(a',cr') + Av(a',cr')
The description of Av or 'adverbial' is now:-"happily by myself I ate the chocolate" = Adv(dyn) + "by" + Reflexive(1p,sg) + St(i,dyn,1p,sg) = Av(dyn) + Av(1p,sg) + St(i,dyn,1p,sg) = Av(dyn,1p,sg) + St(i.dyn,1p,sg) = St(i,dyn,1p,sg) = Text
Av(a') = Adv(a') Av(cr') = "by" + Reflexive(cr') "alone" or "on" + Pronoun(gen,cr') + "own" "alone" or Reflexive(cr') "in person" Av(per) = "since" + St(pa) "later than when"+St Av = "since" + St "because"+St Av(a') = "very" + Adv(a') Av(a',cr') = Av(a',cr') + Av(a',cr')This is the description of Av for Grammar 8.
An Av attached to an incomplete or complete St, as in the example above, is restricted to the aspect a' as well as the character cr' of the StX. The aspect of an incomplete or complete St is that of its V(i)X. Reference has been made in the description of Av to a statement in past time, St(pa). The time t' of an StXis that of tis V(i)X:-
St(t',a',cr')X = Av(a',cr') + St(t',a',cr')X or N(nom,cr') + V(i,t',a',cr')X or St(t',a',cr')X + Av(a',cr')
This is the description of St for Grammar 8.
An adverbial attached to an incomplete or complete question is now restricted to that expression's aspect and character, which are those of its auxiliary verb:-
This is the description of Q for Grammar 8.
An Av attached to an incomplete or complete V is restricted to that expression's aspect and character. In the description of St, reference is now made to the time of an incomplete or complete V(i). The time t', aspect a', and character cr', of a VX are those of its ordinary or auxiliary verb:-
where v' is now any form time aspect and character. This is the description of V for Grammar 8.
When have is an Overb expecting N(acc)+V(e) it narrates action, as in "he angrily had them stop", and is dynamic:-
As ordinary verbs expecting no complement, "behav:e(cr')"+Reflexive(cr') and "behav:e" are dynamic:-Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')(N(cr';acc,cr")+V(e,cr")) = have(f',t',cr') "caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to"+V(e)
The verb "behav:e" can be a dynamic Overb expecting an Adv as its complement, as in "he behaves angrily":-Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')() = "behav:e(f',t',cr') + Reflexive(cr') "act:(f',t',cr') correctly" or "behav:(f',t',cr')" "act:(f',t',cr') correctly"
And eat "enjoy:"+Reflexive "enjoy:" and "sto:p" are dynamic:-Overb(f',t',dyn)(Adv(dyn)) = "behav:e(f',t',cr')" "act(f',t',cr)"Adv
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')((cr';acc)) = eat(f',t',cr') "consum:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"as food" Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')() = eat(f',t',cr) "consum:e(f',t',cr') food" Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')() = "enjoy:(f',t',cr') + Reflexive(cr') take(f',t',cr')+"pleasure" Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')(N(cr';acc)) = "enjoy:(f',t',cr')" take(f',t',cr')+"pleasure from"N(acc) Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')(V(ing.cr')) = "enjoy:(f',t',cr')" take(f',t',cr)+"pleasure from"V(ing) Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')(N(cr';acc,cr")+V(ing,cr")) = "sto:p(f',t',cr')" "caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to cease"+V(ing) Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')(N(cr';acc)) = "sto:p(f',t',cr')" "caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to cease movement/action" Overb(f'.t',dyn,cr')(V(ing,cr')) = "sto:p(f',t',cr)" "ceas:e(f',t',cr)"V(ing) Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')() = "sto:p(f',t',cr')" "ceas:e(f',t',cr')+"movement/action"
For example:-
can be parsed, and a gloss to the parse can be generated. The meaning of "since" is not yet known; "he" and "eats" are recognised together as a Pronoun in the nominative case and the verb eat in the indicative mood and present time, each 3rd-person singular; "he" is copied to the gloss:-"since he eats the chocolate happily, we eat it"
N replaces Pronoun; eat and "the chocolate" are recognised together as a dynamic Overb expecting an N(acc), and an N(acc); in the gloss, the meaning of eat is added, and "the chocolate" is copied:-
In the parse, V replaces Overb, and the suffix N(acc) loses its brackets; in the gloss, "consum:e(i,pr,3p,sg)" generates "consumes", "the chocolate" replaces N(acc), and "as food" moves up to the line:-
St replaces N(nom) + V(i), and N(acc) becomes a suffix to St; the incomplete St has the mood, time, and dynamic aspect of its incomplete V, and the person and number of its N and incomplete V; N(acc) cancels N(acc) leaving St with no suffix; "happily" is parsed as an Adv with the dynamic aspect of the St which it follows; and "we" and "eat" are recognised together as a Pronoun and the verb eat; In the gloss, "joyfully" is added as the meaning of "happily" as a dynamic Adv, and "we" is copied:-
In the parse, Av replaces Adv; N replaces Pronoun; and eat and "it" are recognised together as an Overb expecting an N(acc) and a Pronoun; in the gloss, the meaning of the Overb eat is added, and "it" is copied:-
In the parse, St(dyn) replaces St(dyn)+Av(dyn); V replaces Overb and the suffix N(acc) loses its brackets; and N replaces Pronoun; in the gloss "consum:e(i,pr,1p,pl)" generates "consume", "it" replaces N(acc), and "as food" moves up to the line;-
Av is substituted for "since"+St(pr) and, because the St is not in past time, the meaning of "since" is "because", so "because" is added to the gloss; the gloss to the parse is now finished; in the parse, St replaces N(nom) + V(i), and N(acc) becomes a suffix to St; N(acc) cancels N(acc); St replaces Av+St; and Text replaces St:-
Chapter 8 will intoduce negative expressions, and declared and queried-or-negated contexts.
GRAMMAR 8
Text = St or Q or Text + Text St(t',a',cr')X = Av(a',cr') + St(t',a',cr')X or N(nom,cr) + V(i,t',a',cr)X or St(t',a',cr')X + Av(a',cr')
CHAPTER 8 "anything" and "nothing"
The statement:-
says that "he" had been unparticular about what he ate and, no doubt, ate a lot. But:-"he had eaten anything"
has two meanings. Either, this second statement contradicts the first, denying that "he" had been unparticular but allowing that he may have eaten something. Or, the second statement means:-"he hadn't eaten anything"
"he had eaten nothing"
In the first example statement, "anything" means "stuff no matter what". In the second statement, "anything" means either "stuff no matter what" or "stuff at all". This ambiguity of "anything" is also found after negative N subjects:-
in questions:-"nobody had eaten anything" "he had nobody eat anything"
and in the complements of some verbs:-"had he eaten anything?"
This ambiguity of "anything" occurs in what will be called a 'queried-or-negated context', as opposed to what will be called a 'declared context'. The symbols cx for 'context', de for 'declared context', and qon for 'queried-or-negated context', will be added to the n restrictor tree after case and character:-"he stopped eating anything" "he stopped them eating anything"
and to the v restrictor tree after form time aspect and character.
The words "anybody" "anyone" "anything" "everybody" "everyone" "everything" "nobody" "no-one" "nothing" "somebody" "someone" and "something" are each a 'determiner', "any" "every" "no" or "some", and a noun, strung together. The symbol Dnword for 'determiner-and-noun word' will be introduced as a name symbol. The words "nobody" "no-one" and "nothing" will be named negative-Dnword. In definitions, negative will be shortened to ng. A Dnword or ng-Dnword shows masculine-or-feminine or neuter gender:-
A symbol such as negative or ng prefixed to a name symbol such as Dnword will be called a 'label'.Dnword(masc/fem) = "anybody" or "anyone" Dnword(neut) = "anything" Dnword(masc/fem) = "everybody" or "everyone" Dnword(neut) = "everything" ng-Dnword(masc/fem) = "nobody" or "no-one" ng-Dnword(neut) = "nothing" Dnword(masc/fem) = "somebody" or "someone" Dnword(neut) = "something"
A Dnword can be an N expression, nominative or accusative, 3rd-person, and singular, with the gender gr' of the Dnword. A negative-Dnword is a negative-N:-
These two definitions will be presented as one. The symbol z will be introduced as an 'unknown symbol', like X, to represent 'any label or labels or none'. A z-Dnword is a z-N:-N(nom/acc,3p,sg,gr') = Dnword(gr') ng-N(nom/acc,3p,sg,gr') = ng-Dnword(gr')
In this definition, in which the symbol z appears twice, z represents the same thing in each place. The description of Dnword will define ng-Dnword and Dnword only, so in the definition which gives the name z-N to z-Dnword, z can be the label ng or 'no label' only.z-N(nom/acc,3p,sg,gr') = z-Dnword(gr')
A z-N may be a z-Dnword followed by "else", as in "everyone else eats something else" and "nobody else eats anything else":-
z-N(nom/acc,3p,sg,gr') = z-Dnword(gr') + "else" z-Dnword+"in addition" or z-Dnword(gr')
The definitions for Dnword and ng-Dnword can be glossed. The words "anybody" "anyone" and "anything" have two meanings each, one restricted to queried-or-negated context, the other not restricted by context:-
For example, in "he hadn't eaten anything", "anything" is in qon context and probably means "stuff at all", which is the meaning restricted to qon context, but the meaning "stuff no matter what", which is not restricted by context, is possible. In "he eats anything", "anything is in declared context and can only mean "stuff no matter what". The above is the description of Dnword for Grammar 9. When a z-N is a z-Dnword, or the string z-Dnword+"else", the z-Dnword is in the context, cx', declared or queried-or-negated, of the z-N:-.Dnword(masc/fem,qon) = "anybody" "a person at all" Dnword(masc/fem) = "anybody" "a person no matter who" Dnword(masc/fem,qon) = "anyone" "a person at all" Dnword(masc/fem) = "anyone" "a person no matter who" Dnword(neut,qon) = "anything" "stuff at all" Dnword(neut) = "anything" "stuff no matter what" Dnword(masc/fem) = "everybody" "each person" or "everyone" "each person" Dnword(neut) = "everything" "all stuff" ng-Dnword(masc/fem) = "nobody" "no person" or "no-one" "no person" ng-Dnword(neut) = "nothing" "no stuff" Dnword(masc/fem) = "somebody" "a person" or "someone" "a person" Dnword(neut) = "something" "stuff"
z-N(nom/acc,3p,sg,gr',cx') = z-Dnword(gr',cx') + "else" z-Dnword+"in addition" or z-Dnword(gr',cx')
The description of N for Grammar 9 is:-
z-N(nom/acc,3p,sg,gr',cx') = z-Dnword(gr',cx') + "else" z-Dnword+"in addition" or z-Dnword(gr',cx') N(p',pl;acc,p',pl) = "each other" or "one another" N(n') = Pronoun(n') N(cr';acc,cr') = Reflexive(cr') N(nom/acc,3p,sg,masc/fem) = "the child" N(nom/acc,3p,sg,neut) = "the chocolate"
In a statement which is used as a Text, or which follows "since" to make an adverbial clause, the N(nom) and the V(i) are in declared context, de :-
unless the N(nom) is negative. A V(i) which follows a negative-N, as in "nobody eats anything", is in queried-or-negated context, qon:-St(t',a',cr')X = N(nom,cr',de) + V(i,t',a',cr',de)X
In this definition, no context restrictor is needed after ng-N, because no negative-N has been named which is restricted to a context. A statement which has a ng-N(nom) subject will not, on that account, be named a negative-St.St(t',a',cr')X = N(nom,cr',de) + V(i,t',a',cr',de)X or ng-N(nom,cr') + V(i,t',a',cr',qon)X
An Axverb(X) used as a VX or V, and an Overb(X) used as a VX, are in the context of the V:-
where v' is now any form time aspect character and context. An Axverb(i) with an attached "n't" or following "not" is in qon context. Axverb(i,qon)(X)*"n't" and Axverb(i,qon)(X)+"not" will be named ng-VX or ng-V:-
When "not" precedes a VX in a non-modal form nm', e ed or ing, as in:-
the V(nm)X which follows "not" is in qon context. The "not"+V(nm,qon)X string will not be named negative:-"he enjoys not eating anything"
In Grammar 8, the definitions which allow an adverbial to be attached to an incomplete or complete V are:-V(nm',a',cr')X = "not" + V(nm',a',cr',qon)X
If the VX in the string is negative, the string is negative-VX:-V(v')X = Av(v') + V(v')X V(v')X = V(v')X + Av(v')
In these definitions, v' is now any form time aspect character and context, though only adverbials restricted by aspect or character have so far been named. The description of V is now:-z-V(v')X = Av(v') + z-V(v')X z-V(v')X = z-V(v')X + Av(v')
A statement with a ng-V(i), such as "he hasn't eaten anything", will be called a ng-St:-
This definition, and the definition:-ng-St(t',a',cr')X = N(nom,cr',de) + ng-V(i,t',a',cr')X
will be presented as one definition, which will also provide for statements in which the N(nom) and V(i) are both negative, as in "nobody hasn't eaten anything". Any label or none prefixed to St and V(i) will be represented by the symbol z:-St(t',a',cr')X = N(nom,cr',de) + V(i,t',a',cr',de)X or ng-N(nom,cr') + V(i,t',a',cr',qon)X
To represent any label or none prefixed to N(nom), the symbol y will be introduced. Like z, y will represent 'any label or labels or none'. The string y-N(nom) + z-V(i)X is a z-StX:-z-St(t',a',cr')X = N(nom,cr',de) + z-V(i,t',a',cr',de)X
The context of the incomplete or complete z-V(i) will be shown as declared context modified by whatever y represents, by placing y in brackets after the symbol de:-z-St(t',a',cr')X = y-N(nom,cr',de) + z-V(i,t',a',cr')X
If y is 'no label', de(y) will be de(), which will keep the value de or 'declared'. If y is ng, de(y) is de(ng), which will take the value qon or 'queried-or-negated'. If qon is followed by (y), it will remain qon; qon(y) is 'queried-or-negated' whatever y represents. The context branch of the n and v restrictor trees will now be:-z-St(t',a',cr')X = y-N(nom,cr',de) + z-V(i,t',a',cr',de(y))X
This is the context branch of the n and v restrictor trees for Grammar 9. The three 'unknown symbols' now in use are:-
X any expression or expressions or none (used as a suffix) y any label or labels or none z any label or labels or none.
In Grammar 8 the attaching of an adverbial to an incomplete or complete statement is allowed for as follows:-
If the StX in the string is negative, the string is negative-StX:-St(t',a',cr')X = Av(a',cr') + St(t',a',cr')X or St(t',a',cr')X + Av(a',cr')
The description of St for Grammar 9 is:-z-St(t',a',cr')X = Av(a',cr') + z-St(t',a',cr')X or z-St(t',a',cr')X + Av(a',cr')
z-St(t',a',cr')X = Av(a',cr') + z-St(t',a',cr')X or y-N(nom,cr',de) + z-V(i,t',a',cr',de(y))X or z-St(t',a',cr')X + Av(a',cr')
A negative-St can be a Text. A Text which happens to be a ng-St will not be named negative:-
In this definition, the z symbol appears only once, allowing a label to be discarded during parsing, or introduced during generation.Text = z-St
A statement which follows "since" to make an adverbial clause may be negative, as in "since they haven't eaten anything". A "since" + ng-St string will not be named a negative adverbial. Any label or none prefixed to St will be represented by z:-
Av(per) = "since" + z-St(pa) "later than when"+ z-St Av = "since" + z-St "because"+ z-St
Av(a') = Adv(a') Av(cr') = "by" + Reflexive(cr') "alone" Av(cr') or "on" + Pronoun(gen,cr') + "own" "alone" or Reflexive(cr') "in person" Av(per) = "since" + z-St(pa) "later than when"+ z-St Av = "since" + z-St "because"+ z-St Av(a') = "very" + Adv(a') "extremely"+Adv Av(a',cr') = Av(a',cr') + Av(a',cr')
The description of Q or 'question' in Grammar 8 is:-
The auxiliary verb and N(nom) in a question are both in queried-or-negated context, as in "has anyone eaten anything?"
A question in which the Axverb is negated by "n't" or "not" will not be named negative. The N(nom) in a question can be negative as in "has nobody eaten anything?". A question with a ng-N(nom) will not be named negative. Any label or none prefixed to N(nom) will be represented by z:-
In this definition, z on the right of the = sign only allows a ng label prefixed to N(nom) to be discarded during parsing when Q is substituted, or introduced during generation. The description of Q is now:-
The complement of a verb is usually in the verb's context, de or qon. When have is an auxiliary verb expecting an N(acc), and when eat "enjoy:" have and "sto:p" are ordinary verbs expecting an N(acc), the expected N(acc) will be in the context cx' of the verb:-
For example, in the statementAxverb(f',t',sta,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx')) = have(f',t',cr') be(f',t',cr)"in possession of"+N(acc) Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx')) = eat(f',t',cr') "consum:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"as food" or "enjoy:(f',t',cr')" take(f',t',cr')+"pleasure from"N(acc) or have(f',t',cr') take(f',t',cr')+"possession of"N(acc) or "sto:p(f',t',cr')" "caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to cease movement/action"
"nobody" and "eats" are recognised together as a ng-Dnword and the verb eat in the indicative mood, present time, 3rd person, and singular number. The meaning of the ng-Dnword begins the gloss to the parse:-"nobody eats anything"
ng-N(nom,3p,sg) replaces ng-Dnword; eat and "anything" are recognised together as an Overb expecting an N(acc) and a Dnword; the context of the Overb, of the N(acc) which the Overb expects, and therefore of the Dnword is de(ng), declared context modified by the ng label prefixed to N(nom); the meaning of eat as an Overb expecting an N(acc) is added to the gloss to the parse, :-
In the parse. V replaces Overb and the suffix-in-brackets loses its brackets; the restrictor de(ng) becomes qon in all three places; and the probable meaning of "anything" as a Dnword(qon) is added to the gloss; in the gloss, "consum:e(i,pr,3p,sg)" generates "consumes"; in the parse, St replaces N(nom) + V(i); N(acc,qon) replaces Dnword (qon); and the string simplifies to Text. In the gloss, "stuff at all" replaces N(acc), and "as food" moves up to the line:-
A parse and gloss for:-
can begin similarly:-"somebody eats nothing"
The gloss to the parse is finished, but the parse remains to be simplified. The rule of cancellation is 'like cancels like', so N(acc) cannot cancel ng-N(acc), N(acc) must cancel N(acc) only, leaving the negative label uncancelled to form part of the name of the completed expression. When N(acc) cancels N(acc), the ng label will be 'passed back' from N to V:-
In the parse above, the ng label is first seen prefixed to Dnword, and last seen prefixed to St. The label's 'origin' is Dnword and its 'destination' is St. The simplification of the string could alternatively begin with the substitution of St followed by the cancellation, taking the ng label to the same destination. There is sometimes a choice of destinations for a negative label. In:-
"nothing" may negate "eating". If so, "eating nothing" is what "someone enjoys", so "someone" likes fasting. Alternatively, "nothing" may negate "enjoys eating" and "someone enjoys eating". If so, "someone" no doubt eats from time to time, but gets no pleasure from doing so."someone enjoys eating nothing"
If, in the example, "nothing" negates "eating", then "eating nothing" is a negative-V(ing) and V(ing) is the ng label's destination. If "nothing" negates "enjoys eating" and "someone enjoys eating", then "enjoys eating nothing" is a negative-V(i), "someone enjoys eating nothing" is a negative-St, and St is the label's destination.
As stated above, when "enjoy:" is an Overb expecting an N(acc), the N(acc) is in the context cx', de or qon, of the Overb:-
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx')) = "enjoy:(f',t',cr')" take(f',t',cr')+"pleasure from"N(acc)
If the N(acc) is negative, it negates any expression which it completes.
When "enjoy:" is an Overb expecting a V(ing), the V(ing) is similarly in the context of the Overb:-
For example in "nobody enjoys eating anything", the ng-N(nom) "nobody" puts the V(i) "enjoys eating anything", the V(ing) "eating anything", and the N(acc) "anything" into qon context. If the V(ing) which complements "enjoy:" is negative as in "somebody enjoys eating nothing", it may or may not negate an expression which it completes. To permit the choice, the symbol z will be prefixed to V(ing) in the suffix-in-brackets to Overb. The verb "enjoy:" will be named an Overb expecting a z-V(ing):-Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(V(ing.cr',cx')) = "enjoy:(f',t',cr')" take(f',t',cr)+"pleasure from"V(ing)
During parsing. z can be given the value ng to permit ng-V(ing) to cancel ng-V(ing) or the value 'no label' so that V(ing) can cancel V(ing) only. For example:-Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(z-V(ing.cr',cx')) = "enjoy:(f',t',cr')" take(f',t',cr)+"pleasure from"V(ing)
The gloss to the parse is finished, and preserves the ambiguity of the text. In the parse, if V(ing) is to be the destination of the ng label, the z in the suffix to St must be given the value ng so that ng-V(ing) can cancel ng-V(ing):-
But if St is to be the ng label's destination, the z in the suffix to St must be given the value 'no label':-
In the description of V:-
the string:-
is not named negative. But if the incomplete or complete V which follows "not" gains a label by being completed by a negative expression, the string will be named negative also:-"not" + V(nm,qon)X
The description of V is now:-z-V(nm',a',cr')X = "not" + z-V(nm',a',cr',qon)X
The symbol Q may gain a ng label during cancellation:-
A Text may be a negative-Q or a Q:-
The description of Text for Grammar 9 is:-Text = z-Q
Text = z-St or z-Q or Text + Text
In the description of Q, the definitions which allow an adverbial to be attached to an incomplete or complete question are:-
The incomplete or complete Q in the string may have gained a ng label during cancellation, but, if so, the string will not on that account be named negaive:-Q(a',cr')X = Av(a',cr') + Q(a',cr')X Q(a',cr')X = Q(a',cr')X + Av(a',cr')
The description of Q for Grammar 9 is:-Q(a',cr')X = Av(a',cr') + z-Q(a',cr')X Q(a',cr')X = z-Q(a',cr')X + Av(a',cr')
As discussed above, when "sto:p" is an Overb expecting an N(acc), as in "he stops anyone", "they stop nobody", and "no-one stops anybody", the N(acc) is in the context of the Overb, and if the N(acc) is negative it negates the expression which it completes:-
When "sto:p" expects a V(ing), as in "he stops eating anything", the V(ing) is in qon context:-Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx')) = "sto:p(f',t',cr')" "caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to halt movement/action"
If the V(ing,qon) is negative, as in "he stops eating nothing", it may or may not negate an expression which it completes. To permit the choice, z will be prefixed to V(ing) in the suffix-in-brackets to Overb:-Overb(f'.t',dyn,cr')(V(ing,cr',qon)) = "sto:p(f',t',cr)" "ceas:e(f',t',cr)"V(ing)
When "sto:p" expects the string N(acc)+V(ing) , as in "he stops anyone eating anything" and in "he stops nobody eating anything", the N(acc) is in the context cx' of the Overb, and if negative negates an expression which it completes, but the V(ing) is in qon context, and if negative may or may not negate an expression which it completes:-Overb(f'.t',dyn,cr')(z-V(ing,cr',qon)) = "sto:p(f',t',cr)" "ceas:e(f',t',cr)"V(ing)
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cr",cx')+ z-V(ing,cr",qon)) = "sto:p(f',t',cr')" "caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to cease"+V(ing)
When have expects a Tv, as in "nobody has to eat anything", the Tv is in the context of the verb:-
In a Tv expression, a V(e) which follows "not to" is in qon context, and a V(e) which follows "to" alone is in the context cx' of the Tv:-Axverb(i,t',sta,cr',cx')(Tv(cr',cx')) = have(i,t',cr') be(i,t',cr')"obliged"+Tv Overb(nm',sta,cr',cx')(Tv(cr',cx')) = have(nm',) be(nm')+"obliged"Tv
A Tv with "not to" will not be named a negative-Tv. If the V(e) which follows "not to" or "to" is negative, having gained a label during cancellation, the Tv is negative:Tv(cr')X = "not to" + V(e,cr',qon)X Tv = "not to" Tv(cr',cx')X = "to" + V(e,cr',cx')X Tv = "to"
This is the description of Tv for Grammar 9. When have expects a Tv, if the Tv is negative, it may or may not negate an expression which it completes. To permit the choice, z will be prefixed to Tv in the suffixes-in-brackets to Axverb and Overb:-z-Tv(cr')X = "not to" + z-V(e,cr',qon)X Tv = "not to" z-Tv(cr',cx')X = "to" + z-V(e,cr',cx')X Tv = "to"
For example in "he has to eat nothing", "nothing" may negate "eat" and "to eat". If so "he" is forced not eat, and Tv is the destination of the ng label. Or"nothing" may negate "has to eat" and "he has to eat". If so there is nothing which "he" is forced to eat but no doubt he eats something, and St is the destination of the label.Axverb(i,t',sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(cr',cx')) = have(i,t',cr') be(i,t',cr')"obliged"+Tv Overb(nm',sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(cr',cx')) = have(nm',) be(nm')+"obliged"Tv
When have is an auxiliary verb expecting a V(ed), as in "he hasn't eaten anything" and "nobody has eaten anything", the V(ed) is in the context of the Axverb:-
This definitions has not been glossed, and the significance of have expecting a V(ed) is that it has perfect aspect. If the V(ed) is negative, as in "he has eaten nothing", it negates the expression which it completes. The definition above is repeated in Grammar 9.Axverb((i/e)',t',per,cr',cx')(V(ed,cr',cx')) = have((i/e)',t',cr')
When have is an ordinary verb expecting the string N(acc)+V(e) the N(acc) and V(e) are in the context of the Overb, as in "nobody had anyone eat anything":-
unless the N(acc) is negative, as in "he had no-one eat anything". A ng-N(acc) both places the V(e) which follows it in qon context, and negates any expression which it completes. Any label or none prefixed to N(acc) will be represented by z, the context of the V(e) will be shown as the context of the Overb, cx', modified by whatever z represents, cx'(z), and to permit a label prefixed to N(acc) to be passed back, z will be prefixed to Overb:-Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cr",cx')+V(e,cr",cx')) = have(f',t',cr') "caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to"+V(e)
If the V(e) is negative, as in "he had everyone eat nothing", it may or may not negate an expression which it completes. To permit the choice, the symbol y will represent any label ior none prefixed to V(e):-z-Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')(z-N(cr';acc,cr",cx')+V(e,cr",cx'(z))) = have(f',t',cr') "caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to"+V(e)
This definition is repeated below as part of Grammar 9, A z-Overb(X) is a z-VX:-z-Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(z-N(cr';acc,cr",cx')+ y-V(e,cr",cx'(z))) = have(f',t',cr') "caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to"+V(e)
No similar additions are needed in definitions which name Axverb. No verb will be named a z-Axverb. The description of V for Grammar 9 is:-z-V(v')X = z-Overb(v')(X)
Generation is the reverse of parsing. The reverse of cancelling like and like is splitting into like and like. The reverse of passing a label back during cancellation is passing a label forward during splitting. For example:-
In this generation, the ng label is first seen when Text generates ng-Q, and last seen prefixed to Dnword, before ng-Dnword generates "nothing". Q is the label's origin and Dnword is its destination. Just as there can be a choice of destinations for a label during parsing, so there can be a choice of origins for a label during generation. For example, the string of words "have you to eat nothing?" can alternatively be generated as follows:-Text = ng-Q = QTv + ng-Tv = Axverb(i,pr,2p)(Tv) + N(nom,2p) + TvN(acc) + ng-N(acc) = have(i,pr,2p) + Pronoun(nom,2p) + "to" + V(e)N(acc) + ng-Dnword = "have you to" + Overb(e)(N(acc)) + "nothing?" = "have you to" + eat(e) + "nothing" = "have you to eat nothing?"
In this generation, ng is first seen prefixed to Tv. In the first generation, Axverb(i,pr,2p)(Tv) generates have(i,pr,2p); in the second generation Axverb(i,pr,2p)(ng-Tv) also generates have(i,pr,2p). Both generations are made on the authority of the definition:-Text = Q = Qng-Tv + ng-Tv = Axverb(i,pr,2p)(ng-Tv) + N(nom,2p) + TvN(acc) + ng-N(acc) = have(i,pr,2p) + Pronoun(nom,2p) + "to" + V(e)N(acc) + ng-Dnword = "have you to" + Overb(e)(N(acc)) + "nothing?" = "have you to" + eat(e) + "nothing" = "have you to eat nothing?"
in which z is ng or 'no label'.Axverb(i,t',sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(cr',cx')) = have(i,t',cr') be(i,t',cr')"obliged"+Tv
The position reached in this chapter is summed up in Grammar 9. Chapter 9 will introduce the negative adverbials "rarely" and "never", and adverbials such as "ever" "much" and "yet" which are restricted to queried-or-negated context.
Note
The Standard English "I haven't done anything" can translate into London Dialect, Cockney, as "I ain't done nuffing". A dialect can be treated in isolation as a language in its own right, with its own grammar. In a grammar of Cockney, "nuffing" would need to be named twice:-
The ambiguity of "nuffing" in queried-or-negated context may be inconvenient, but so may the ambiguity of "anything" in Standard.Dnword(neut,qon) = "nuffing" "stuff at all" ng-Dnword(neut) = "nuffing" "no stuff"
Chapter 10 introduces adverbials of time, and the use as adverbial clauses of reversed statements and "if"+St strings, as in "had I the chocolate, I might eat it" and "if I had, I might".
GRAMMAR 9
Text = z-St or z-Q or Text + Text z-St(t',a',cr')X = Av(a',cr') + z-St(t',a',cr')X or y-N(nom,cr',de) + z-V(i,t',a',cr',de(y))X or z-St(t',a',cr')X + Av(a',cr')
CHAPTER 9 "rarely" "never" and "ever"
The word "rarely" is a negative adverb:-
This is the description of Adv for Grammar 10. An Av or 'adverbial' can be an Adv or the string "very"+Adv. If the Adv is negative, the Av is negative:-Adv(dyn) = "angrily" "crossly" or "happily" "joyfully" Adv = "happily" "fortunately" or "luckily" "fortunately" ng-Adv = "rarely" "seldom"
The word "never" is a negative-Av:-z-Av(a') = z-Adv(a') or "very" + z-Adv(a') "extremely"+ z-Adv
The phrase "at all" and the words "ever" "much" and "yet" are adverbials used only in queried-or-negated context:-ng-Av = "never" "at no time"
as for example in:-Av(qon) = "at all" "to any extent whatever" or "ever" "at any time whatever" or "much" "a lot" or "yet" "so far"
It is not normal to say, for example, "I eat the chocolate yet much ever at all"."nobody eats the chocolate at all" "they rarely eat it ever" "we haven't eaten it much" "they eat nothing yet" "have you eaten it yet much ever at all?"
The definitions in Grammar 9 which allow for the attaching of adverbials to incomplete or complete V or ng-V expressions are:-
In these definitions, the v' symbols will be replaced by restrictors for form, time, aspect, character, and context. An Av which precedes a z-VX is in that expression's aspect character and context:-z-V(v')X = Av(v') + z-V(v')X z-V(v')X = z-V(v')X + Av(v')
An incomplete or complete z-V which follows a negative-Av is in queried-or-negated context, as in "he never eats anything yet":-z-V(f',t',a',cr',cx')X = Av(a',cr',cx') + z-V(f',t',a',cr',cx')X
This two-pronged definition will be replaced. Any label or none prefixed to Av will be represented by the symbol y. The context of an incomplete or complete z-V which follows a y-Av will be shown as the context of the string, cx', modified by what y represents cx'(y):-z-V(f',t',a',cr',cx')X = Av(a',cr',cx') + z-V(f',t',a',cr',cx')X or ng-Av + z-V(f',t',a',cr',qon)X
A V which begins with a ng-Av will not, on that account, be called a ng-V.z-V(f',t',a',cr',cx')X = y-Av(a',cr',cx') + z-V(f',t',a',cr',cx'(y))X
An Av which follows a z-VX is in that expression's context modified by z:-
as in "he hasn't eaten the chocolate yet" and "I haven't ever". The description of V for Grammar 10 is:-z-V(f',t',a',cr',cx')X = z-V(f',t',a',cr',cx'(y))X + Av(a',cr',cx'(z))
The description of St in Grammar 9:-
allows an Av to be added to the beginning or end of an incomplete or complete St or ng-St. An Av which precedes a statement used as a Text, or after "since" in an adverbial clause, is in declared context:-z-St(t',a',cr')X = Av(a',cr') + z-St(t',a',cr')X or y-N(nom,cr',de) + z-V(i,t',a',cr',de(y))X or z-St(t',a',cr')X + Av(a',cr')
For example it is not normal to say "ever he eats the chocolate" or "since ever he eats the chocolate", and in "yet he eats it", "yet" is not an Av(qon) meaning "so far". An adverbial which follows an incompl;ete or complete z-St is in declared context modified by whatever z represents, de(z) context:z-St(t',a',cr')X = Av(a',cr',de) + z-St(t',a',cr')X or y-N(nom,cr',de) + z-V(i,t',a',cr',de(y))X or z-St(t',a',cr')X + Av(a',cr')
Thjs is the description of St for Grammar 10.z-St(t',a',cr')X = Av(a',cr',de) + z-St(t',a',cr')X or y-N(nom,cr',de) + z-V(i,t',a',cr',de(y))X or z-St(t',a',cr')X + Av(a',cr',de(z))
The description of Q in Grammar 9:-
allows an Av to be attached to the beginning of end of an incomplete or complete z-Q. An Av which follows a question, complete or incomplete, is in qon context, as in "have you ever eaten it?" and "have you ever?". An Av which precedes a question is in declared context because no qon context has yet been created. It is not normal to say "ever have you eaten it?":-
The usual place for a negative-Av is before a V expression, as in:-
This example statement can be rephrased:-"he never stops anyone"
In this example, and in the question:-"never does he stop anyone"
the words "does he stop anyone" can be thought of as a 'reversed statement'. The usual sequence, in a statement, of N(nom) and verb has been reversed by placing the verb before the N. The symbol Rst will be introduced for 'reversed statement'. The definition above which give the name Q, incomplete or complete, to the three strings:-"does he stop anyone?"
will be replaced by an exactly similar definition for Rst:-Axverb(i,qon)(X) * "n't" + z-N(nom) Axverb(i,qon)(X) + z-N(nom) + "not" Axverb(i,qon)(X) + z-N(nom)
A question can be a reversed statement:-
In a question such as "has he eaten the chocolate ever?", the Av(qon) "ever" can be attached to "has he eaten the chocolate" as a Q, as allowed for above, or as an Rst or 'reversed statement':-Q(a'.cr')X = Av(a',cr',de) + z-Q(a',cr')X or z-Rst(a',cr')X or z-Q(a',cr')X + Av(a',cr',qon)
This is the description of Rst or 'reversed statement' for Grammar 10.
As provided for in Grammar 9, a Text may be a statement, perhaps negative, or a question, perhaps negative. And two texts strung together make a single Text. Alternatively, a Text may be a negative-Av followed by a reversed statement, perhaps negative,:-
This is the description of Text for Grammar 10.Text = z-St or z-Q or ng-Av + z-Rst or Text + Text
The definition:-
in Grammar 9 allows two adverbials to be strung together to make a single adverbial. The two Av expressions are in the context, cx', of the string:-Av(a',cr') = Av(a',cr') + Av(a',cr')
If the first Av in the string is negative, the second is in queried-or-negated context, as in "very rarely ever has he eaten the chocolate" and "he never much has". Any label or none prefixed to the first Av will be represented by z. The string z-Av + Av is a z-Av, and the second Av is in the context of the string, cx', modified by z, cx'(z):-Av(a',cr',cx') = Av(a',cr',cx') + Av(a',cr',cx')
The description of Av is now:-z-Av(a',cr',cx') = z-Av(a',cr',cx') + Av(a',cr',cx'(z))
This is the description of Av for Grammar 10.Av(a') = Adv(a') Av(cr') = "by" + Reflexive(cr') "alone" Av(cr') or "on" + Pronoun(gen,cr') + "own" "alone" or Reflexive(cr') "in person" Av(per) = "since" + z-St(pa) "later than when"+ z-St Av = "since" + z-St "because"+ z-St Av(a') = "very" + Adv(a') "extremely"+Adv z-Av(a',cr',cx') = z-Av(a',cr',cx') + Av(a',cr',cx'(z))
For example:-
Chapter 10 introduces adverbials of time, and the use as adverbial clauses of "if"+St strings and reversed statements, as in "if tomorrow I had the chocolate, I might eat it" and "had I it, I might".
GRAMMAR 10
Text = z-St or z-Q or ng-Av + z-Rst or Text + Text z-St(t',a',cr')X = Av(a',cr',de) + z-St(t',a',cr')X or y-N(nom,cr',de) + z-V(i,t',a',cr',de(y))X or z-St(t',a',cr')X + Av(a',cr',de(z)) Q(a'.cr')X = Av(a',cr',de) + z-Q(a',cr')X or z-Rst(a',cr')X or z-Q(a',cr')X + Av(a',cr',qon)
CHAPTER 10 moods and time