Part 1
Part 2
Grammar 10
Chapter 10 moods and time
Grammar 11
Chapter 11 "can" "could" "will" and "would"
Grammar 12
Chapter 12 "must" "should" and "ought"
Grammar 13
Chapter 13 requests
Grammar 14
Chapter 14 commands
Grammar 15
Chapter 15 entities material and proper names
Grammar 16
Chapter 16 determiners
Glossary of Symbols
GRAMMAR 10
Text = z-St
or z-Q
or ng-Av + z-Rst
or Text + Text
z-St(t',a',cr')X
= Av(a',cr',de) + z-St(t',a',cr')X
or y-N(nom,cr',de) + z-V(i,t',a',cr',de(y))X
or z-St(t',a',cr')X + Av(a',cr',de(z))
Q(a'.cr')X = Av(a',cr',de) + z-Q(a',cr')X
or z-Rst(a',cr')X
or z-Q(a',cr')X + Av(a',cr',qon)
z-N(nom/acc,3p,sg,gr',cx')
= z-Dnword(gr',cx') + "else"
z-Dnword+"in addition"
or z-Dnword(gr',cx')
N(p',pl;acc,p',pl) = "each other"
or "one another"
N(n') = Pronoun(n')
N(cr';acc,cr') = Reflexive(cr')
N(nom/acc,3p,sg,masc/fem) = "the child"
N(nom/acc,3p,sg,neut) = "the chocolate"
Dnword as described in Grammar 9
Pronoun Reflexive as described in Grammar 7
Adv(dyn) = "angrily" "crossly"
or "happily" "joyfully"
Adv = "happily" "fortunately"
or "luckily" "fortunately"
ng-Adv = "rarely" "seldom"
z-Av(a') = z-Adv(a')
Av(cr')
= "by" + Reflexive(cr') "alone"
Av(cr')
or "on" + Pronoun(gen,cr') + "own" "alone"
or Reflexive(cr') "in person"
Av(per)
= "since" + z-St(pa) "later than when"+ z-St
Av = "since" + z-St "because"+ z-St
z-Av(a') = "very" + z-Adv(a') "extremely"+Adv
z-Av(a',cr',cx') = z-Av(a',cr',cx') + Av(a',cr',cx'(z))
Axverb(f',t',sta,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= have(f',t',cr')
be(f',t',cr)"in possession of"+N(acc)
Axverb((i/e)',t',per,cr',cx')(V(ed,cr',cx'))
= have((i/e)',t',cr')
Axverb(i,t',sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(cr',cx'))
= have(i,t',cr')
be(i,t',cr')"obliged"+Tv
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')()
= "behav:e(f',t',cr') + Reflexive(cr')
"act:(f',t',cr') correctly"
Overb(f',t',dyn)(Adv(dyn))
= "behav:e(f',t',cr')"
"act(f',t',cr)"Adv
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')()
= "behav:e(f',t',cr')"
"act:(f',t',cr') correctly"
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= eat(f',t',cr')
"consum:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"as food"
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')()
= eat(f',t',cr)
"consum:e(f',t',cr') food"
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')()
= "enjoy:(f',t',cr') + Reflexive(cr')
take(f',t',cr')+"pleasure"
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= "enjoy:(f',t',cr')"
take(f',t',cr')+"pleasure from"N(acc)
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(z-V(ing.cr',cx'))
= "enjoy:(f',t',cr')"
take(f',t',cr)+"pleasure from"V(ing)
z-Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(z-N(cr';acc,cr",cx')
+ y-V(e,cr",cx'(z)))
= have(f',t',cr')
"caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to"+ y-V(e)
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= have(f',t',cr')
take(f',t',cr')+"possession of"N(acc)
Overb(nm',sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(cr',cx'))
= have(nm',)
be(nm')+"obliged"Tv
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cr",cx')
+ z-V(ing,cr",qon))
= "sto:p(f',t',cr')"
"caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to cease"+V(ing)
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= "sto:p(f',t',cr')"
"caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to cease movement/action"
Overb(f'.t',dyn,cr')(z-V(ing,cr',qon))
= "sto:p(f',t',cr)"
"ceas:e(f',t',cr)"V(ing)
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')()
= "sto:p(f',t',cr')"
"ceas:e(f',t',cr')+"movement/action"
z-Tv(cr')X = "not to" + z-V(e,cr',qon)X
Tv = "not to"
z-Tv(cr',cx')X = "to" + z-V(e,cr',cx')X
Tv = "to"
":" ":e" ":p" be eat have take as described in Grammar 7
CHAPTER 10 moods and time
The indicative, the subjunctive, and the conditional, are the three moods. The indicative is a mood of fact or conjecture. The subjunctive and conditional are moods of conjecture. Each mood is in constant use. In:-
"if he has the chocolate, he eats it"
"has" and "eats" are indicative, and in present time, and "if he has the chocolate" is an "if" + St string used as an adverbial clause:- Av = "if" + St
In:- "if he had the chocolate, he might eat it"
"if he were the child, he might have it"
"if he might eat it, we might"
"had" and "were" are subjunctive and in future time, and "might" is conditional and in future time.
These three example statements can be rephrased:- "had he the chocolate, he might eat it"
"were he the child, he might have it"
"might he eat it, we might"
in which, again. "had" and "were" are subjunctive future, and "might" is conditional future. The adverbial clauses "had he the chocolate""were he the child" and "might he eat it" are reversed statements, in the sense that the normal order, in a statement, of N(nom) subject and verb, has been reversed by placing the verb before the N(nom):- Av = Rst
Rst is described, referring only to the indicative mood, in Grammar 10 as follows:-
The symbols m for 'mood'. s for 'subjunctive mood', and cl for 'conditional mood', will be added to the form branch of the v restrictor tree. The symbol fu for 'future time' will be added to the v restrictor tree's time branch:-
The indicative and conditional are the Text moods. A statement used as a Text is indicative or conditional, and in declared context. A question is indicative or conditional. A reversed atatement in a ng-Av +Rst string such as "rarely have I anything", is also indicative or conditional. The description of Text for Grammar 11 is:-
Text = z-St(i/cl,de)
or z-Q(i/cl)
or ng-Av + z-Rst(i/cl)
or Text + Text
A statement or negative statement, z-St, which follows "since" to make an adverbial clause is indicative or condiional and in declared
context:-
Av(per)
= "since" + z-St(i/cl,pa,de) "later than when"+ z-St
Av = "since" + z-St(i/cl,de) "because"+ z-St
as in "I have stopped since they stopped" and "since they stop, I stop".
An adverbial clause may be "if" followed by a statement, perhaps negative. in the indicative subjunctive or conditional mood, and in queried-or-negated context:-
Av = "if" + z-St(i/s/cl,qon)
as in "if anyone ever eats anything" "if anybody were to eat anything" and "if anyone might eat anything". The mood of the statement restricts the use of the Av clause. If "if" is followed by an indicative z-St, the clause can be used with expressions in the indicative, and will be named an Av(i):-Av(i) = "if" + z-St(i,qon)
If "if" is followed by a subjunctive or conditional z-St. the Av can be used with subjunctive or conditional expressions, and will be named an Av(s/cl)Av(s/cl) = "if" + z-St(s/cl,qon)
When a subjunctive or conditional reversed statement, perhaps negative as in "were I nothing", is an adverbial clause, the clause can be used with subjunctive or conditional expressions, and will be named an Av(s/cl):-Av(s/cl) = z-Rst(s/cl)
The three new definitions for Av can" be glossed:-
Av(i) = "if" + z-St(i,qon)
"in the event that"+ z-St
Av(s/cl) = "if" + z-St(s/cl,qon)
"in the event that"+ z-St
or z-Rst(s/cl) "only"+ z-Rst
The mood m' and time t' of a statement are those of its V expression. The expressions in a statement. including adverbials, are in the statement's context cx', de or qon, perhaps modified to qon by a preceding negative expression within the statement. An Av attached to a complete or incomplete z-St is restricted to the statement's mood m' and time t'. For Grammar 11:-
z-St(m',t',a',cr',cx')X
= Av(m',t',a',cr',cx') + z-St(m',t',a',cr',cx')X
or y-N(nom,cr',cx') + z-V(m',t',a',cr',cx'(y))X
or z-St(m',t',a',cr',cx')X + Av(m',t',a',cr',cx'(z))
The mood (i/cl)' and time t' of a question are those of its reversed statement. An Av attached to a question is restricted to the question's mood and time, For Grammar 11:-
Q((i/cl)',t'.a'.cr')X
= Av((i/cl)',t',a',cr',de) + z-Q((i/cl)',t',a',cr')X
or z-Rst((i/cl)',t',a',cr')X
or z-Q((i/cl)',t',a',cr')X + Av((i/cl)'.t'.a',cr',qon)
The mood m' and time t'of a reversed statement are those of its auxiliary verb. An Av attached to the end of an incomplete or complete z-Rst is in that expression's mood and time:-
This is he description of Rst for Grammar 11. Rst expressions are now referred to in three places, namely in the descriptions of Text Q andd Av.
The word "shall" is an auxiliary verb, indicative, future, static, and expecting a V(e):-
Axverb(i,fu,sta)(V(e)): = "shall"
The V(e) will alo be in future time, and have the character and be in the context of the Axverb, as in "no-one shall eat anything himself yet". If the V(e) is negative, as in "you shall eat nothing yet", it may or may not negate an expression which it completes. To permit the choice, z will be prefixed to V(e) in the suffix-in-brackets to Axverb:-Axverb(i,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu.,cr',cx'))
= "shall" "will"V(e)
The string "shall" * "n't" gives "shan't"; the word "will", referred to in the gloss to "shall", combines wih "n't" to give "won't":-
This link table is repeated in Grammar 11. Definitions naming "will" will be introduced in Chapter 11.
The expressions "by tomorrow" "today" "tomorrow" and "yesterday" are adverbials of time:-
Av = "by tomorrow"
or "today"
or "tomorrow"
or "yesterday"
Verbs fix time. It is possible to say:-
"I ate the chocolate yesterday"
in which "ate" is the verb eat in the indicative mood and past time, as named in Grammar 7:-
eat(i,pa) = "ate"
and the Av "yesterday" is attached to the V(i,pa) "ate the chocolate" or the St(i,pa) "I ate the chocolate". It is not normal to say "I eat the chocolate yesterday" or "I shall eat it yesterday", so "yesterday" is an Av restricted to past time:-Av(pa)
= "yesterday" "during the day before this"
It is possible to say "I shall eat it today" "I eat it today" and "I ate it today", so "today" is an Av which, for the purposes of a grammar, can be future, present, or past. Its time is not restricted:-Av = "today" "during this day"
It is normal to say "I shall eat it tomorrow" and "I eat it tomorrow" but not "I ate it tomorrow", so "tomorrow", for the purposes of a grammar, is an Av in future or present time:-
Av(fu/pr)
= "tomorrow" "during the day after this"
It is normal to say "I shall eat it by tomorrow" but not "I eat it by tomorrow" or "I ate it by tomorrow", so "by tomorrow" is restricted to future time:-Av(fu)
= "by tomorrow" "no later than the day after this"
In, for example:-
"I shall eat the chocolate by tomorrow"
the Av(fu) "by tomorrow" may be attached to the St(i,fu) "I shall eat the chocolate", or the V(i,fu) "shall eat the chocolate", or may be attached to the V(e) "eat the chocolate" which is also in future time. because "shall" expects a V(e) in future tiime.
As discussed above, an Av attached to a complete or incomplete St Q or Rst is restricted to that expression's mood and time. An Av attached to a complete or incomplete V or ng-V is restricted to the form f' and time t' of the expression which it is attached to. For Grammar 11:-
The words "may" and "might" can be auxiliary verbs, in the indicative and conditional moods respectively, in future time as in "by tomorrow I may" and "might he by tomorrow?", of static aspect, expecting V(e) complements also in future time, of the same character and in the same context, which if negative may or may not negate any expressions which they complete:-
Axverb(i,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx'))
= "may" "will""perhaps/permissibly+V(e)
Axverb(cl,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx'))
= "might" "would""perhaps/permissibly"+V(e)
The words "may" and "might" can also be auxiliary verbs in past time, respectively indicative and conditional, expecting what is typically the string "have"+V(ed), as in "he may have stopped yesterday" and "might he have eaten it yesterday?" In this use "may" and "might" lack the "permissibly" shade of meaning:-
Axverb(i,pa)("have"+V(ed))
= "may" "will""perhaps have"+V(ed)
Axverb(cl,pa)("have"+V(ed))
= "might" "would""perhaps have"+V(ed)
The V(ed) can be left out if it will be clear what is missing. as in ¬he may have" and "might he have?". The symbol Hv will be introduced to name what is typically the string "have"+V(ed) but may be the word"have" alone, complementing a verb:-Hv = "have" + V(ed)
or "have"
The V(ed) is in past time and has the character of the Hv, which is that of the verb which the Hv complements:-Hv(cr') = "have" + V(ed,pa,cr')
Hv = "have"
If the V(ed) is there but incomplete, the Hv is incomplete and requires for its completion what the incomplete V(ed) requires, X:-Hv(cr')X = "have" + V(ed,pa,cr')X
Hv = "have"
The word "not" may precede "have" as in "he may not have eaten anything" and "mightn't he not have?" A V(ed)) which follows "not have" is in queried-or-negated context. A V(ed) which follows "have" alone is in the context cx' of the Hv:-Hv(cr'.cx')X = "have" + V(ed,pa,cr',cx')X
Hv = "have"
Hv(cr')X = "not have" + V(ed,pa,cr',qon)X
Hv = "not have"
An Hv with "not" before "have" will not, on that account, be named negative. An Hv with a ng-V(ed) will be named a ng-Hv. Any label or none prefixed to V(ed) and Hv will be represented by z:-
z-Hv(cr')X = "not have" + z-V(ed,pa,cr',qon)X
Hv = "not have"
z-Hv(cr'.cx')X = "have" + z-V(ed,pa,cr',cx')X
Hv = "have"
The above is the description of Hv for Grammar 11. An Hv expression looks and sounds like a V(e), but the description of Hv parallels the description of Tv in Grammar 10:-z-Tv(cr')X = "not to" + z-V(e,cr',qon)X
Tv = "not to"
z-Tv(cr',cx')X = "to" + z-V(e,cr',cx')X
Tv = "to"
The V(ed) in an Hv is in past time, but the V(e) in a Tv is in the time t' of the Tv, which is or relates to the time of the verb which the Tv complements:-z-Tv(t',cr')X = "not to" + z-V(e,t',cr',qon)X
Tv = "not to"
z-Tv(t',cr',cx')X = "to" + z-V(e,t',cr',cx')X
Tv = "to"
This is the description of Tv for Grammar 11.
The definitions above, which give to "may" and "might" the name of Axverb expecting "have"+ V(ed), can now be replaced by shorter and more powerful definiitions for Axverb expecting Hv:-
Axverb(i,pa cr'cx')(Hv(cr',cx')
= "may" "will""perhaps"+Hv
Axverb(cl,pa,cr'.cx')(Hv(cr'.cx')
= "might" "would""perhaps"+Hv
In, for example, "he may have eaten nothing since he ate the chocolate", "since" can mean mean "later than when", a meaning restricted to perfect aspect. When "may" and "might" expect Hv complements, they have perfect aspect. In "he may have eaten nothing", "nothing" may negate "eaten", or "may have eaten" and "he may hqve eaten". If the Axverb "may" or the Axverb "might" is complemented by a ng-Hv, the ng-Hv may or may not negate an expression which it completes. To permit the choice, z will be prefixed to Hv in the suffixes-in-brackets to Axverb:-Axverb(i,pa,per,cr'cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "may" "will""perhaps"+Hv
Axverb(cl,pa,per,cr'.cx')(z-Hv(cr'.cx'))
= "might" "would""perhaps"+Hv
The four new definitions for Axverb, naming "may" and "might", are repeated in Grammar 11. Unlike"may" and "might", "shall" is not used in past time expecting an Hv. In "I shall have eaten it", "have eaten it" must be a V(e) in future time.
In the description of the verb be in Grammar 7, the word "were" is named indicative past 2nd-person singular, or indicative past plural in all persons:-
be(i,pa,2p,sg)/(i,pa,pl) = "were"
The word "were" can also be subjunctive future in all persons and both numbers, as in "if I were you" and "if by tomorow he were me":-be(s.fu) = "were"
The two definitions which now name "were" will be presented as a single definition:-be(i,pa,2p,sg)/(i,pa,pl)/(s,fu) = "were"
The description of be for Grammar 11 is:-be(i,pr,1p,sg) = "am"
be(i,pr,2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl) = "are"
be(e) = "be"
be(ed) = "been"
be(ing) = "being"
be(i,pr,3p,sg) = "is"
be(i,pa,1p/3p,sg) = "was"
be(i,pa,2p,sg)/(i,pa,pl)/(s,fu) = "were"
The verb be can be an Axverb, static, expecting an N(acc) as in "he was the child" and "if he were the child":-
Axverb(f',t',sta,cr',cx)(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= be(f',t',cr')
have(f',t',cr')"existence as"+N(acc)
where f' is any form, modal or non-modal, which the description of be supplies, indicative subjunctive e ed or ing. If the N(acc) is negative, as in "you are nobody", it negates any expression which it completes.
The verb be can be a static Axverb in the indicative mood, expecting a Tv, as in "you are to stop" and "he wasn't to eat the chocolate":-
Axverb(i,t',sta,cr',cx')(Tv(cr',cx')
= be(i,t',cr') have(i,t',cr')"a duty"+Tv
The time of the Tv is at or later than the time t' of the Axverb. For example in "he was to stop tomorrow", the Av(fu/pr) "tomorrow" must be attached to the V(e) "stop".and cannot be attached to the V(i) "was to stop", or the St(i) "he was to stop", each of which is in past time.
The symbol:-
al
for 'at-or-later than' will be added to the time branch of the v restrictor tree. The symbol al will be followed by a pair of brackets enclosing a time restrictor; al(fu) 'at-or-lster than future' can only be future; al(pr) 'at-or-later than present' can be future or present; and al(pa) 'at-pr-later than past' can be future present or past.
This is the v restrictor tree for Grammar 11.
When be in the indicative mood and a time t' is an Axverb expecting a Tv, the time of th Tv is al(t'), at-or-later than the time of the Axverb. If the Tv is negative, it may or may not negte an expression which it completes:-
Axverb(i,t',sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(al(t'),cr',cx')
= be(i,t',cr')
have(i,t',cr')"a duty"+Tv
The word "were" can be an Axverb in the subjunctive mood and future time, of static aspect, expecting a Tv also in future time, as in "if he were to stop by tomorrow, we might":-
Axverb(s,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(fu,cr',cx') = Were"
The meaning of "were to " can be given as "did happen to":-
Axverb(s,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(fu,cr',cx')
= were" "did""happen"+Tv
The verb be is the only verb which has a subjunctive future which differs from its indicative past. The word "ate", for example, represents the verb eat in the indicative past, as in "I ate it yesterday", and in the subjunctive future, as in "if I ate it tomorrow, you might":-
eat(i,pa) = "ate"
eat(s,fu) = "ate"
These two definitions will be presented as a single definition:- eat(i,pa)/(s,fu) = "ate"
For Grammar 11The description of eat is:-eat(i,pa)/(s,fu) = "ate"
eat(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e) = "eat"
eat(ed) = "eaten"
eat(ing) = "eating"
eat(i,pr,3p,sg) = "eats"
The two definitions in Grammar 10 which name the verb eat an Overb:-Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= eat(f',t',cr')
"consum:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"as food"
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')()
= eat(f',t',cr)
"consum:e(f',t',cr') food"
stay unchanged for Grammar 11, but the form f' is now indicative subjunctive e ed or ing.
TThe verb eat is the word "ate" in the indicative past and subjunctive future, as shown above, and "eaten" in ed form. The word "had" is the verb have in the indicative past, as in "he had the chocolate yesterday", in the subjunctive future, as in "if he had it tomorrow", and in ed form as in "he has had it":-
have(i,pa)/(s,fu)/(ed) = "had"
The description of have" for Grmmar 11 is.:-have(i,pa)/(s,fu)/(ed) = "had"
have(i,pr,3p,sg) = "has"
have(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e) = "have"
have(ing) = "having"
The definitions in Grammar 10 which name the verb have an Axverb and Overb expecting an N(acc):-
Axverb(f',t',sta,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= have(f',t',cr')
be(f',t',cr)"in possession of"+N(acc)
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= have(f',t',cr')
take(f',t',cr')+"possession of"N(acc)
remain unchanged for Grammar 11, but the form f' is now indicative subjunctive e ed or ing.
As shown in Grammar 10, the verb have can be an Axverb, (usable without its expected complement as a complete V), in the indicative mood, expecting a Tv, which can be shortened to "to" or "not to", as in "he has to stop", which can beshortened to "he has to" and"he has", and an Overb in non-modal form nm', usable only as an incomplete V requiring a Tv, in e form as in "he may have to stop" which can be shortened to "he may" or "he may have to" but not to "he may have", in ed form as in "he has had to stop"which can be shortened to "he has" or "he has had to" but not to "he has had", and in ing form as in "he enjoys having to stop" which can be shortened to"he enjoys having to" but not to "he enjoys having". The definitions in Grammar 10 which provide for this are:-
Axverb(i,t',sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(cr',cx'))
= have(i,t',cr')
be(i,t',cr')"obliged"+Tv
Overb(nm',sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(cr',cx'))
= have(nm',)
be(nm')+"obliged"Tv
The Axverb can be in the indicative mood, as provided for above, or the aubjunctive mood, as in "if tomorrow he had to, he might". In the definition for Axverb, the restrictor i for 'indicative' will be replaced by (i/s)' 'a mood in the range indicative or subjunctive':-Axverb((i/s)',t',sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(cr',cx'))
= have((i/s)',t',cr')
be((i/s)',t',cr')"obliged"+Tv
The time of a Tv which complements have is at-or-later than the time of have,as in""yesterday he had to stop tomottow". If the the time of the Axverb or Overb is t', the time of the expected Tv is al(t'):-Axverb((i/s)',t',sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(al(t'),cr',cx'))
= have((i/s)',t',cr')
be((i/s)',t',cr')"obliged"+Tv
Overb(nm',t',sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(al(t'),cr',cx'))
= have(nm')
be(nm')+"obliged"Tv
The verb have can be an Overb expecting the string N(acc)+V(e) , as in "he has them stop". This is provided for in Grammar 10 in the definition:-
z-Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(z-N(cr';acc,cr",cx')
+ y-V(e,cr",cx'(z)))
= have(f',t',cr')
"caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to"+ y-V(e)
The form f' can now be i s e ed or ing. The time of the Ve) is at-or-later than the time of the time t' of the Overb al(t'):-z-Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(z-N(cr';acc,cr",cx')
+ y-V(e,al(t'),cr",cx'(z)))
= have(f',t',cr')
"caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to"+ y-V(e)
as in "yesterday he had them stop tomorrow".
The verb have in the indicative mood, and in e non-modal form, can be an Axverb expecting a V(ed). From Grammar 10:-
Axverb((i/e)',t',per,cr',cx')(V(ed,cr',cx'))
= have((i/e)',t',cr')
The time of the expected V(ed) is that of the Axverb:-Axverb((i/e)',t',per,cr',cx')(V(ed,t',cr',cx'))
= have((i/e)',t',cr')
as in "he has eaten the chocolate today" and "he had eaten it yesterday".
he word "had" can be an Axverb in the subjunctive mood in past time expecting a V(ed), as in:- "if he had eaten it yesterday, we mightn't have anything"
"had he eaten it yesterday, we might have nothing"
In the subjunctive in past time, "had" can be complemented by an Hv:- "if he had have eaten it yesterday, we mightn't have anything"
"had he have yesterday, we might have nothing"
In these examples:-Axverb(s,pa,per,cr'cx')(V(ed,pa,cr',cx')) = "had"
Axverb(s,pa,per,cr'cx')(Hv(cr',cx') = "had"
These two definitions will not be glossed.
The definitions which name "sto:p" Overb in Grammar 10 are:-
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cr",cx')
+ z-V(ing,cr",qon))
= "sto:p(f',t',cr')"
"caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to cease"+V(ing)
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= "sto:p(f',t',cr')"
"caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to cease movement/action"
Overb(f'.t',dyn,cr')(z-V(ing,cr',qon))
= "sto:p(f',t',cr)"
"ceas:e(f',t',cr)"V(ing)
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')()
= "sto:p(f',t',cr')"
"ceas:e(f',t',cr')+"movement/action"
The word "stopped" can be indicative past, subjunctive future, and ed, as in "I stopped them" "if I stopped them tomorrow" and"I have stopped them". The definition for ":p" which names "pped" will now be:- ":p(i,pa)/(s,fu)/(ed)" = "pped"
The description of ":p" for Grammar 11 will be:-":p(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e)" = "p"
":p(i,pa)/(s,fu)/(ed)" = "pped"
":p(ing)" = "pping"
":e(i,pr,3p,sg)" = "ps"
When "sto:p"expects N(acc)+V(ing) as in "he stopped them eating the chcocolate tomorrow", the time of the V is at-or-later than the time of the Overb:-Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cr",cx')
+ z-V(ing,al(t'),cr",qon))
= "sto:p(f',t',cr')"
"caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to cease"+V(ing)
When "sto:p" expects a V(ing,qon) as in "he stops eating anything ever", the Vis in the time t' of the OverbOverb(f'.t',dyn,cr')(z-V(ing,t'.cr',qon))
= "sto:p(f',t',cr)"
"ceas:e(f',t',cr)"V(ing)
These two definitions are repeated in Grammar 11The definitions, above, which name"sto:p" Overb expecting an N(acc) . and Overb expecting no complement are repeated unchanged in Grammar 11.
The definitions in Grammar 10 which refer to the verb "enjoy:" are:-
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')()
= "enjoy:(f',t',cr') + Reflexive(cr')
take(f',t',cr')+"pleasure"
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= "enjoy:(f',t',cr')"
take(f',t',cr')+"pleasure from"N(acc)
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(z-V(ing.cr',cx'))
= "enjoy:(f',t',cr')"
take(f',t',cr)+"pleasure from"V(ing)
as in "he enjoys himself", "he enjoys the chocolate", and "he enjoys eating it". The word "enjoyed" can now be subjunctive future, as in "if I enjoyed myself tomorrow, you might". To provide for this, in the description of ":e" from Grammar 7, "ed" must be named indicative past, subjunctive future, or ed, for Grammar 11:-":e(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e)" = "e"
":e(i,pa)/(s,fu)/(ed)" = "ed"
":e(i,pr,3p.sg)" = "es"
":e(ing)" = "ing"
Of the three definitions for Overb referring to "enjoy:", above, the first two can be repeated unchanged in Grammar 11. When "enjoy:" expects a V(ing), the time of the V is that of "enjoy:". For Grammar 11:-Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(z-V(ing,t',cr',cx'))
= "enjoy:(f',t',cr')"
take(f',t',cr)+"pleasure from"V(ing)
The three definitions in Grammar 10 which refer to the verb "behav:e":-
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')()
= "behav:e(f',t',cr') + Reflexive(cr')
"act:(f',t',cr') correctly"
Overb(f',t',dyn)(Adv(dyn))
= "behav:e(f',t',cr')"
"act(f',t',cr)"Adv
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')()
= "behav:e(f',t',cr')"
"act:(f',t',cr') correctly"
as in "he behaves himself" "he behaves angrily" "he behaves" will be repeated unchanged in Grammar 11, but "behaved" can now be subjunctive future, as in "if I behaved myself, they might". The decription of ":" for Grammar 11 will be":(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e)" = ""
":(i,pa)/(s,fu)(ed)" = "ed"
":(ing)" = "ing"
":(i,pr,3p,sg)" = "s"
GRAMMAR 11
Text = z-St(i/cl,de)
or z-Q(i/cl)
or ng-Av + z-Rst(i/cl)
or Text + Text
z-St(m',t',a',cr',cx'X
= Av(m',t',a',cr',cx') + z-St(m',t',a',cr',cx')X
or y-N(nom,cr',cx') + z-V(m',t',a',cr',cx'(y))X
or z-St(m',t',a',cr',cx')X + Av(m',t',a',cr',cx'(z))
Q((i/cl)',t',a'.cr')X
= Av((i/cl),'t',a',cr',de) + z-Q((i/cl)',t',a',cr')X
or z-Rst((i/cl)',t',a',cr')X
or z-Q((i/cl)',t',a',cr')X + Av((i/cl)'t',a',cr',qon)
z-N(nom/acc,3p,sg,gr',cx')
= z-Dnword(gr',cx') + "else"
z-Dnword+"in addition"
or z-Dnword(gr',cx')
N(p',pl;acc,p',pl) = "each other"
or "one another"
N(n') = Pronoun(n')
N(cr';acc,cr') = Reflexive(cr')
N(nom/acc,3p,sg,masc/fem) = "the child"
N(nom/acc,3p,sg,neut) = "the chocolate"
Dnword as described in Grammar 9
Pronoun Reflexive as described in Grammar 7
Adv(dyn) = "angrily" "crossly"
or "happily" "joyfully"
Adv = "happily" "fortunately"
or "luckily" "fortunately"
ng-Adv = "rarely" "seldom"
z-Av(a') = z-Adv(a')
Av(cr')
= "by" + Reflexive(cr') "alone"
Av(fu)
= "by tomorrow" "no later than the day after this"
Av(i) = "if" + z-St(i,qon)
"in the event that+ z-St
Av(s/cl) = "if" + z-St(s/cl,qon)
"in the event that"+ z-St
Av(cr')
= "on" + Pronoun(gen,cr') + "own" "alone"
or Reflexive(cr') "in person"
Av(s/cl) = z-Rst(s/xc) "only+ z-Rst
Av(per)
= "since" + z-St(i/cl,pa,de) "later than when"+ z-St
Av = "since" + z-St(i/cl,de) "because"+ z-St
Av = "today" "during this day"
Av(fu/pr)
= "tomorrow" "during the day after this"
z-Av(a') = "very" + z-Adv(a') "extremely"+Adv
Av(pa)
= "yesterday" "during the day before this"
z-Av(a',cr',cx') = z-Av(a',cr',cx') + Av(a',cr',cx'(z))
Axverb(f',t',sta,cr',cx)(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= be(f',t',cr') have(f',t',cr'"existence as"+N(acc)
Axverb(s,pa,per,cr'cx')(V(ed,pa,cr',cx')) = "had"
Axverb(s,pa,per,cr'cx')(Hv(cr'cx') = "had"
Axverb(f',t',sta,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= have(f',t',cr')
be(f',t',cr)"in possession of"+N(acc)
Axverb((i/e)',t',per,cr',cx')(V(ed,t',cr',cx'))
= have((i/e)',t',cr')
Axverb((i/s)',t',sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(al(t'),cr',cx'))
= have((i/s)',t',cr')
be((i/s)',t',cr')"obliged"+Tv
Axverb(i,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx'))
= "may" "will""perhaps/permissibly"+V(e)
Axverb(i,pa,per,cr'cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "may" "will""perhaps"+Hv
Axverb(cl,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx'))
= "might" "would""perhaps/permisibly"+V(e)
Axverb(cl,pa,per,cr'.cx')(z-Hv(cr'.cx'))
= "might" "would""perhaps"+ Hv
Axverb(i,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx'))
= "shall" "will"V(e)
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')()
= "behav:e(f',t',cr') + Reflexive(cr')
"act:(f',t',cr') correctly"
Overb(f',t',dyn)(Adv(dyn))
= "behav:e(f',t',cr')"
"act(f',t',cr)"Adv
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')()
= "behav:e(f',t',cr')"
"act:(f',t',cr') correctly"
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= eat(f',t',cr')
"consum:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"as food"
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')()
= eat(f',t',cr)
"consum:e(f',t',cr') food"
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')()
= "enjoy:(f',t',cr')" + Reflexive(cr')
take(f',t',cr')+"pleasure"
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= "enjoy:(f',t',cr')"
take(f',t',cr')+"pleasure from"N(acc)
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(z-V(ing,t',cr',cx'))
= "enjoy:(f',t',cr')"
take(f',t',cr)+"pleasure from"V(ing)
z-Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(z-N(cr';acc,cr",cx')
+ y-V(e,cr",cx'(z)))
= have(f',t',cr')
"caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to"+ y-V(e)
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= have(f',t',cr')
take(f',t',cr')+"possession of"N(acc)
Overb(nm',sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(cr',cx'))
= have(nm',)
be(nm')+"obliged"Tv
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cr",cx')
+ z-V(ing,al(t'),cr",qon))
= "sto:p(f',t',cr')"
"caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to cease"+V(ing)
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr',cx')(N(cr';acc,cx'))
= "sto:p(f',t',cr')"
"caus:e(f',t',cr')"N(acc)+"to cease movement/action"
Overb(f'.t',dyn,cr')(z-V(ing,t',cr',qon))
= "sto:p(f',t',cr)"
"ceas:e(f',t',cr)"V(ing)
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr')()
= "sto:p(f',t',cr')"
"ceas:e(f',t',cr')+"movement/action"
z-Hv(cr',cx')X = "have" + z-V(ed,pa,cr',cx')X
Hv = "have"
z-Hv(cr')X = "not have" + z-V(ed,pa,cr',qon)X
Hv = "not have"
z-Tv(t',cr')X = "not to" + z-V(e,t',cr',qon)X
Tv = "not to"
z-Tv(t',cr',cx')X = "to" + z-V(e,t',cr',cx')X
Tv = "to"
":(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e)" = ""
":(i,pa)/(s,fu)/(ed)" = "ed"
":(ing)" = "ing"
":(i,pr,3p,sg)" = "s"
":e(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e)" = "e"
":e(i,pa)/(s,fu)/(ed)" = "ed"
":e(i,pr,3p.sg)" = "es"
":e(ing)" = "ing"
":p(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e)" = "p"
":p(i,pa)/(s,fu)/(ed)" = "pped"
":p(ing)" = "pping"
":e(i,pr,3p,sg)" = "ps"
be(i,pr,1p,sg) = "am"
be(i,pr,2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl) = "are"
be(e) = "be"
be(ed) = "been"
be(ing) = "being"
be(i,pr,3p,sg) = "is"
be(i,pa,1p/3p,sg) = "was"
be(i,pa,2p,sg)/(i,pa,pl)/(s.fu) = "were"
eat(i,pa)/(s,fu) = "ate"
eat(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e) = "eat"
eat(ed) = "eaten"
eat(ing) = "eating"
eat(i,pr,3p,sg) = "eats"
have(i,pa)/(s,fu)/(ed) = "had"
have(i,pr,3p,sg) = "has"
have(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e) = "have"
have(ing) = "having"
take(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e) = "take"
take(ed) = "taken"
take(i,pr,3p,sg) = "takes"
take(ing) = "taking"
take(i,pa)/(s,fu) = "took"
CHAPTER 11 "can" "could" "will" and "would"
The words "can" and "could" will be named the verb can, and "will" and "would" will be named will:-
can = "can"
or "could"
will = "will"
or "would"
Like "may","can" and "will" are indicative future, as in "by tomorrow I can" and "by tomorrow will you?". The words "could" and "would", unlike "might", are indicative past, as in "I could yesterday" and "yesterday he wouldn't", or, like "might", conditional future, as in "if I were the child, I could eat it by tomorrow" and "were I, by tomorrow I would":- can(i,fu) = "can"
can(i,pa)/(cl,fu) = "could"
will(i,fu) = "will"
will(i,pa)/(cl,fu) = "would"
The verbs can and will have no non-modal forms. The above are the descriptions of the two verbs for Grammar 12.
The verbs can and will can be auxiliary verbs in a mood in the range indicative or conditional (i/cl)', static, expecting a V(e) in the same time, with the same character, and in the same context, de or qon. If the V(e) is negative, as in "I can eat nothing", it may or may not negate an expression which it completes. To permit the choice, z will be prefixed to V(e) in the suffix-io-brackets to Axverb:-
Axverb((i/cl)',t',sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,t'.cr',cx'))
= can((i/cl)',t',cr')
or will((i/cl)',t',cr')
This definition can be glossed for Grammar 12:-Axverb((i/cl)',t',sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,t'.cr',cx'))
= can((i/cl)',t',cr')
will(i/cl)',t')"be able to/possibly/permissibly"+V(e)
or will((i/cl)',t',cr')
can((i/cl,t')'"certainly/determinedly/willingly"+V(e)
This use of can and will to gloss each other is tail-chasing and imprecise, and could be avoided by using a second language.
Like "may", the words "can" and "will" can be indicative past and of perfect aspect expecting Hv complements:-
Axverb(i,pa,per)(Hv) = "can"
or "will"
as in "he can have stopped yesterday" and "will he have yesterday?". The Hv, typically the string "have"+V(ed) , as described in Grammar 12, has the character and is in he context of the Axverb, and if negative may or may not negate an expression which it completes:-Axverb(i,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx')) = "can"
or "will"
This definition can be glossed;-Axverb(i,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "can" "may""possibly"+Hv
or "will" "must""certainly"+Hv
Like "might", "could" and "would" can be conditional past expecting Hv complements:-
Axverb(cl,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx')) = "could"
or "would"
This definition can be glossed:-Axverb(cl,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "could" "might""possibly"+Hv
or "would" "should""certainly"+Hv
A link table in Grammar 11 provides for the link-up of "shall" * "n't" as "shan't", and "will" * "n't" as "won't". The link-up of "can"* "n't" gives "can't":-
The word "can" links with "not" to give "cannot":-
For example, in "I cannot eat anything", "not" is atttached to and negates "can", and the statement means that "I" am unable to eat. But in "I can not eat anything", "not" is attached to and negates the V(e) "eat anything", and the statement means that"I" am able not to eat.
The use of "can" "could" "may" "might" "will" and "would" in requests such as "please may I" and "will you please" will be introduced in chapter 13. Chapter 12 discusses "must" "ought" "should" !dare" and "need".
GRAMMAR 12
Text = z-St(i/cl,de)
or z-Q(i/cl)
or ng-Av + z-Rst(i/cl)
or Text + Text
z-St(m',t',a',cr',cx'X
= Av(m',t',a',cr',cx') + z-St(m',t',a',cr',cx')X
or y-N(nom,cr',cx') + z-V(m',t',a',cr',cx'(y))X
or z-St(m',t',a',cr',cx')X + Av(m',t',a',cr',cx'(z))
Q((i/cl)',t',a'.cr')X
= Av((i/cl),'t',a',cr',de) + z-Q((i/cl)',t',a',cr')X
or z-Rst((i/cl)',t',a',cr')X
or z-Q((i/cl)',t',a',cr')X + Av((i/cl)'t',a',cr',qon)
z-N(nom/acc,3p,sg,gr',cx')
= z-Dnword(gr',cx') + "else"
z-Dnword+"in addition"
or z-Dnword(gr',cx')
N(p',pl;acc,p',pl) = "each other"
or "one another"
N(n') = Pronoun(n')
N(cr';acc,cr') = Reflexive(cr')
N(nom/acc,3p,sg,masc/fem) = "the child"
N(nom/acc,3p,sg,neut) = "the chocolate"
Dnword as described in Grammar 9
Pronoun Reflexive as described in Grammar 7
Adv(dyn) = "angrily" "crossly"
or "happily" "joyfully"
Adv = "happily" "fortunately"
or "luckily" "fortunately"
ng-Adv = "rarely" "seldom"
z-Av(a') = z-Adv(a')
Av(cr')
= "by" + Reflexive(cr') "alone"
Av(fu)
= "by tomorrow" "no later than the day after this"
Av(i) = "if" + z-St(i,qon) "in the event that+ z-St
Av(s/cl) = "if" + z-St(s/cl,qon) "in the event that"+ z-St
Av(cr')
or "on" + Pronoun(gen,cr') + "own" "alone"
or Reflexive(cr') "in person"
Av(s/cl) = z-Rst(s/xc) "only+ z-Rst
Av(per)
= "since" + z-St(i/cl,pa,de) "later than when"+ z-St
Av = "since" + z-St(i/cl,de) "because"+ z-St
Av = "today" "during this day"
Av(fu/pr = "tomorrow" "during the day after this"
z-Av(a') = "very" + z-Adv(a') "extremely"+Adv
Av(pa) = "yesterday" "during the day before this"
z-Av(a',cr',cx') = z-Av(a',cr',cx') + Av(a',cr',cx'(z))
Axverb((i/cl)',t',sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,t'.cr',cx'))
= can((i/cl)',t',cr')
will(i/cl)',t')"be able to/possibly/permissibly"+V(e)
Axverb(i,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "can" "may""possibly"+Hv
Axverb(cl,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "could" "might""possibly"+Hv
Axverb(i,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx'))
= "may" "will""perhaps/permissibly"+V(e)
Axverb(i,pa,per,cr'cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "may" "will""perhaps"+Hv
Axverb(cl,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx'))
= "might" "would""perhaps/permisibly"+V(e)
Axverb(cl,pa,per,cr'.cx')(z-Hv(cr'.cx'))
= "might" "would""perhaps"+ Hv
Axverb(i,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx'))
= "shall" "will"V(e)
Axverb((i/cl)',t',sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,t'.cr',cx'))
= will((i/cl)',t',cr')
can((i/cl,t')'"certainly/determinedly/willingly"+V(e)
Axverb(i,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
or "will" "must""certainly"+Hv
Axverb(cl,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "would" "should""certainly"+Hv
Further definitions for Axverb are in Grammar 11
Definitions for Overb are in Grammar 11
z-Hv(cr',cx')X = "have" + z-V(ed,pa,cr',cx')X
Hv = "have"
z-Hv(cr')X = "not have" + z-V(ed,pa,cr',qon)X
Hv = "not have"
z-Tv(t',cr')X = "not to" + z-V(e,t',cr',qon)X
Tv = "not to"
z-Tv(t',cr',cx')X = "to" + z-V(e,t',cr',cx')X
Tv = "to"
can(i,fu) = "can"
can(i,pa)/(cl,fu) = "could"
will(i,fu) = "will"
will(i,pa)/(cl,fu) = "would"
CHAPTER 12 "must" "should" and ought"
In "I must stop by tomorrow", perhaps responded to by "must you?", "must" is an auxiliary verb in future time expecting a V(e):-
Axverb(i,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx'))
= "must" "will""compulsorily/certainly"+V(e)
In "he must have stopped yesterday" and"mustn't he have?", "must" is in past time expecting an Hv:-Axverb(i,pa,per,cr',cs')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "must" "will""certainly"+Hv
The words "shall" is named in Grammar 11:-
Axverb(i,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx'))
= "shall" "will"V(e)
The words "shall" and "should" will not be named one verb. In the indicative mood, "should" can be future static as in "you should stop by tomorrow", or past perfect as in "you should have stopped yesterday":-Axverb(i,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx))
= "should" "ought""to"+V(e)/"will""probably"+V(e)
Axverb(i,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "should" "ought""to"+Hv/"will""probably"+Hv
The word "should" can also be used instead of "would" in the conditional mood, future and past.-
Axverb(cl,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx))
= "should" "would"V(e)
Axverb(cl,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "should" "would"Hv
In:-
"should he stop, we might"
"if they should stop, we might"
"might" and the St "we might" are in the conditional mood, so the adverbial clauses "should he stop" and "if they should stop", attached to the St(cl) "we might", must be Av(cl) expressions, within which "should" must be conditional.
In:-
"I should stop, if I were you"
"I should have stopped yesterday, had I been you"
"were" must be subjunctive future, and "had" must be subjunctive past, so "if I were you" and "had I been you" must be Av(cl) expressions attached to "I should stop" and "I should have stopped yesterday", so "should" must be conditional. This use of "should" as an alternative to "would" resembles the use of "shall" as an alternative to "will". But if "should" seemingly could be indicative or conditional, as in :- "you ahould eat the chocolate"
"should you have eaten it?"
"should" can be assumed to be indicative.
In "I ought to stop by tomorrow", "ought" is indicative future static, complemented by a Tv, typically the string "to"+V(e):-
Axverb(i,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(fu,cr',cx'))
= "ought"
"will""have an obligation"+Tv/"be likely"+Tv
Tv is described in Grammar 12 as follows:-z-Tv(t',cr')X = "not to" + z-V(e,t',cr',qon)X
Tv = "not to"
z-Tv(t',cr',cx')X = "to" + z-V(e,t',cr',cx')X
Tv = "to"
In "I ought to have stopped yesterday", "ought" is indicative past perfect, complemented by what is typically "to"+Hv:-Axverb(i,pa,per,cr',cx')("to"+ z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "ought"
where Hv is described in Grammar 12 as follows:-z-Hv(cr',cx')X = "have" + z-V(ed,pa,cr',cx')X
Hv = "have"
z-Hv(cr')X = "not have" + z-V(ed,pa,cr',qon)X
Hv = "not have"
The symbol Thv will be inroduced for what is typically the string "to"+Hv:-
Thv = "to" + Hv
The Hv has the character of the Thv, which is that of the Axverb which the Thv complements, as in "he ought to have stopped himself". If the Hv is incomplete requiring X for completion, the Thv is also incomplete and requires X:- Thv(cr')X = "to" + Hv(cr')X
The word "not" can precede the word "to", placing the Hv in queried-or-negated context, as in "he ought not to have stopped anyone yet" and "oughtn't he not to have?". An Hv which follows "to" alone is in the context, de or qon, of the Thv:- Thv(cr')X = "not to" + Hv(cr',qon)X
Thv(cr',cx')X = "to" + Hv(cr',cx')X
A Thv which begins with "not to" will not be named negative. The "not" negates the Hv which follows only. But if the Hv is negative, the Thv will also be named negative:- z-Thv(cr')X = "not to" + z-Hv(cr',qon)X
z-Thv(cr',cx')X = "to" + z-Hv(cr',cx')X
The definition above which names "ought" an Axverb expecting "to"+ z-Hv can now be replaced by the ahorter and more powerful definition:-Axverb(i,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Thv(cr',cx'))
= "ought"
This defition can be glossed:-Axverb(i,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Thv(cr',cx'))
= "ought"
"had""an obligation"+Thv/bei,pa,cr')"likely"+Thv
For example:-
Chapter 13 introduces the use of "can" "could" "may" "might" "will" and "would" in requests such as "may I please eat the chocolate!" and "would you stop eating it please".
GRAMMAR 13
Text = z-St(i/cl,de)
or z-Q(i/cl)
or ng-Av + z-Rst(i/cl)
or Text + Text
z-St(m',t',a',cr',cx'X
= Av(m',t',a',cr',cx') + z-St(m',t',a',cr',cx')X
or y-N(nom,cr',cx') + z-V(m',t',a',cr',cx'(y))X
or z-St(m',t',a',cr',cx')X + Av(m',t',a',cr',cx'(z))
Q((i/cl)',t',a'.cr')X
= Av((i/cl),'t',a',cr',de) + z-Q((i/cl)',t',a',cr')X
or z-Rst((i/cl)',t',a',cr')X
or z-Q((i/cl)',t',a',cr')X + Av((i/cl)'t',a',cr',qon)
z-N(nom/acc,3p,sg,gr',cx')
= z-Dnword(gr',cx') + "else"
z-Dnword+"in addition"
or z-Dnword(gr',cx')
N(p',pl;acc,p',pl) = "each other"
or "one another"
N(n') = Pronoun(n')
N(cr';acc,cr') = Reflexive(cr')
N(nom/acc,3p,sg,masc/fem) = "the child"
N(nom/acc,3p,sg,neut) = "the chocolate"
Dnword as described in Grammar 9
Pronoun Reflexive as described in Grammar 7
Adv(dyn) = "angrily" "crossly"
or "happily" "joyfully"
Adv = "happily" "fortunately"
or "luckily" "fortunately"
ng-Adv = "rarely" "seldom"
z-Av(a') = z-Adv(a')
Av(cr')
= "by" + Reflexive(cr') "alone"
Av(fu)
= "by tomorrow" "no later than the day after this"
Av(i) = "if" + z-St(i,qon) "in the event that+ z-St
Av(s/cl) = "if" + z-St(s/cl,qon) "in the event that"+ z-St
Av(cr')
or "on" + Pronoun(gen,cr') + "own" "alone"
or Reflexive(cr') "in person"
Av(s/cl) = z-Rst(s/xc) "only+ z-Rst
Av(per)
= "since" + z-St(i/cl,pa,de) "later than when"+ z-St
Av = "since" + z-St(i/cl,de) "because"+ z-St
Av = "today" "during this day"
Av(fu/pr = "tomorrow" "during the day after this"
z-Av(a') = "very" + z-Adv(a') "extremely"+Adv
Av(pa) = "yesterday" "during the day before this"
z-Av(a',cr',cx') = z-Av(a',cr',cx') + Av(a',cr',cx'(z))
Axverb((i/cl)',t',sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,t'.cr',cx'))
= can((i/cl)',t',cr')
will(i/cl)',t')"be able to/possibly/permissibly"+V(e)
Axverb(i,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "can" "may""possibly"+Hv
Axverb(cl,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "could" "might""possibly"+Hv
Axverb(i,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx'))
= "may" "will""perhaps/permissibly"+V(e)
Axverb(i,pa,per,cr'cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "may" "will""perhaps"+Hv
Axverb(cl,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx'))
= "might" "would""perhaps/permisibly"+V(e)
Axverb(cl,pa,per,cr'.cx')(z-Hv(cr'.cx'))
= "might" "would""perhaps"+ Hv
>Axverb(i,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx'))
= "must" "will""compulsorily/certainly"+V(e)
Axverb(i,pa,per,cr',cs')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "must" "will""certainly"+Hv
Axverb(i,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-Tv(fu,cr',cx'))
= "ought"
"will""have an obligation"+Tv/"be likely"+Tv
Axverb(i,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Thv(cr',cx'))
= "ought"
"had""an obligation"+Thv/be(i,pa,cr')"likely"+Thv
Axverb(i,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx'))
= "shall" "will"V(e)
Axverb(i,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx))
= "should" "ought""to"+V(e)/"will""probably"+V(e)
Axverb(cl,fu,sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,fu,cr',cx))
= "should" "would"V(e)
Axverb(i,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "should" "ought""to"+Hv/"will""probably"+Hv
Axverb(cl,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= should" "would"Hv
Axverb((i/cl)',t',sta,cr',cx')(z-V(e,t'.cr',cx'))
= will((i/cl)',t',cr')
can((i/cl,t')'"certainly/determinedly/willingly"+V(e)
Axverb(i,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
or "will" "must""certainly"+Hv
Axverb(cl,pa,per,cr',cx')(z-Hv(cr',cx'))
= "would" "should""certainly"+Hv
Further definitions for Axverb are in Grammar 11
Definitions for Overb are in Grammar 11
z-Hv(cr',cx')X = "have" + z-V(ed,pa,cr',cx')X
Hv = "have"
z-Hv(cr')X = "not have" + z-V(ed,pa,cr',qon)X
Hv = "not have"
z-Thv(cr')X = "not to" + z-Hv(cr',qon)X
z-Thv(cr',cx')X = "to" + z-Hv(cr',cx')X
z-Tv(t',cr')X = "not to" + z-V(e,t',cr',qon)X
Tv = "not to"
z-Tv(t',cr',cx')X = "to" + z-V(e,t',cr',cx')X
Tv = "to"
can(i,fu) = "can"
can(i,pa)/(cl,fu) = "could"
will(i,fu) = "will"
will(i,pa)/(cl,fu) = "would"
CHAPTER 13 requests
The expressions "can I eat the chocolate yet?" and "will you eat it ever?" are questions, but "can I please eat it" and "please will you eat it" are requests. The symbol Rq will be introduced for 'request':-
Rq = "can I please eat it"
or "please will you eat it"
Expressions in a question, other than leading adverbials, are in queried-or-negated context. In a request, expressions are in declared context, unless a negative expression creates a queried-or-negated context, as in "would nobody eat anything yet please":- Rq = "can I please eat it"
or "please will you eat it"
or "would nobody eat anything yet please"
A request with a ng-N subject, such as "nobody", will be named a negative-Rq:- Rq = "can I please eat it"
or "please will you eat it"
ng-Rq = "would nobody eat anything yet please"
A request looks and sounds like a question, and so is more round-about, less abrupt, and therefore more polite, than a command such as "eat it" or "let me eat it". The word "please" can be part of a request, but not of a question.
A request or negative request will be named a Text:-
Text = z-St(i/cl,de)
or z-Q(i/cl)
or z-Rq
or ng-Av + z-Rst(i/cl)
or Text + Text
This is the description of Text for Grammar 14.
The words "can" "could" "may" "might" "will" and "would" are 'request verbs'. No name symbol will be used for them. They will be referred to directly in definitions for Rq.
To seek permission, "can" "could" "may" and "might" can be followed by an N(nom) or ng-N(nom), in the 1st or 3rd person, and in declared context, to make a request, incomplete and requiring a V(e) for completion, or complete, as in "please can I eat the chocolate" "could he please eat it" "may nobody please eat it yet" and "might they please". If the N(nom) is negative, the incomplete or complete request is negative:-
For example in "might anyone please eat the chocolate", "anyone" is in declared context and means "a person no matter who". A V(e) required to complete the request is in future time, has the person number and gender of the z-N(nom), and is in declared context modified by what z represents:-
The request verbs "can" "could" "will" and "would" can be followed by a z-N(nom) in the 2nd or 3rd person, as in "please can you stop" "please could everyone stop" "will you please stop" and "would nobody stop yet please". A V(e) required to complete the request is in future time, has the character of the z-N(nom), and is in declared context modified by z:-
The word "please" can precede or follow an incomplete or complete request or negative request:-
z-RqX = "please" + z-RqX
or z-RqX + "please"
An Av can precede or follow an incomplete or complete z-Rq.
Despite the use of "could" "might" and "would"as request verbs, a request counts as an expression in the indicative mood when an Av is added:- z-RqX = Av(i) + z-RqX
or z-RqX + Av(i)
For example in "if you had the chocolate, would you please eat it". "had" must be indicative past, and cannot be subjunctive future. The Av is in future time, as in "by tomorrow, will you please stop" and of static aspect. The Av has the character cr' of the incomplete or complete z-Rq, which is that of the request's z-N(nom), as in "yourselves would you eat it please". An Av which precedes a z-Rq is in declared context. An Av which follows an incomplete or complete z-Rq is in declared context modified by z:-
This is the descfrription of Rq for Grammar 14.
For example, in "please would no-one eat anything yet", the Av(qon) "yet" can be attached to the V(e,qon) "eat anything" or to the ng-Rq "please would no-one eat anything". And, for example:-
Chapter 14 introduces 'commands', such as "please stop eating the chocolate" and "let me eat it please"
GRAMMAR 14
Text = z-St(i/cl,de)
or z-Q(i/cl)
or z-Rq
or ng-Av + z-Rst(i/cl)
or Text + Text
St Q and Rst as described in Grammar 13
Av as described in Grammar 13
n and v restrictor trees as shown in Grammar 13
CHAPTER 14 commands
Expressions such as "please stop eating the chocolate", "let me eat it please", "don't you eat it", "nobody eat anything yet", and "do someone eat it please" will be called commands. The symbol C will be used for 'command':-
C = "please stop eating the chocolate"
or "let me eat it please"
or "don't you eat it"
or "nobody eat anything yet"
or "do someone eat it please"
Like a statement question or request, a command will be named a Text:- Text = C
The simplest sort of command looks and sounds like a V in e form, as in "eat it", but can include "you", as in "you eat it", or a determiner-and-noun word, Dnword, such as "anyone" "everybody" "nobody" or "someone". as in "everyone eat it". Like a request, a command can include "please" as in "eat it please" and "someone please eat it".
The symbol Cv, for 'command V', will name an expression resembling a V(e), used as or in a command. An auxiliary or ordinary verb in e form, expecting a complement X, can be an incomplete Cv requiring X for completion:-
CvX = Axverb(e)(X)
or Overb(e)(X)
where X is any expression or expressions or none. The Axverb or Overb is in future time, has the character, cr', and is in the context, cx', declared or queried-or-negated, of the Cv. The Cv has the aspect, a', dynamic static or perfect, of the Axverb or Overb:- Cv(a',cr',cx')X = Axverb(e,fu,a',cr',cx')(X)
or Overb(e,fu,a',cr',cx')(X)
An Axverb which begins a Cv lacks a usual characteristic of an auxiliary verb; it cannot be used without its expected complement. For example, "please have stopped by tomorrow" will not normally be shortened to "have", or "have by tomorrow", but might become "do" or "please do". The word "do" expecting a V(e) is the 'auxiliary command verb'. It can be used without its expected V(e), as in "do stop" and "do", and can be negated by a following "n't" or "not", as in "don't eat anything", "don't". "do not eat anything" and "do not". The expressions "don't" and "do not" will be named negative-Cv, of static aspect, either incomplete and requiring a V(e) in future time, with the character of the ng-Cv, and in queried-or-negated context, or complete. And "do" will similarly be named a Cv, static, incomplete and reqiring a V(e) in future time, with the character, and in the context as the Cv, or complete:-
The word "please" can be added to the beginning or end of an incomplete or complete Cv or ng-Cv:-
z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X = "please" + z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X
or z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X + "please"
An adverbial, similarly, can be added to the beginning or end of a z-CvX:- z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X = Av + z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X
or z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X + Av
Although a Cv is like a V in e form, an Av attached to an incomplete or complete z-Cv is in the indicative mood:- z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X = Av(i) + z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X
or z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X + Av(i)
For example in "if you ate the chocolate, eat something else", "ate" must be indicative past, and cannot be subjunctive future. The Av is in future time, as in "eat it by tomorrow", and has the character of the Cv, as in "eat it yourself":- z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X
= Av(i,fu,cr') + z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X
or z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X + Av(i,fu,cr')
An Av which precedes an incomplete or complete z-Cv is in that expression's context. An Av which follows a z-CvXis in that expression's context modified by what z is:- z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X
= Av(i,fu,cr',cx') + z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X
or z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X + Av(i,fu,cr',cx'(z))
as in "eat nothing ever" and "don't eat anything ever", in which "ever" is an Av(qon). A negative-Av can precede a z-CvX, placing it in qon context:- z-Cv(a',cr')X = ng-Av + z-Cv(a',cr',qon)X
as in "never eat anything ever*. A Cv which begins with a ng-Av will not, on that account, be named negative.
The description of Cv or 'command V' is now:-
z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X
= "please" + z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X
or Av(i,fu,cr',cx') + z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X
z-Cv(a',cr')X = ng-Av + z-Cv(a',cr',qon)X
Cv(a',cr',cx')X = Axverb(e,fu,a',cr',cx')(X)
or Overb(e,fu,a',cr',cx')(X)
z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X
= z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X + "please"
or z-Cv(a',cr',cx')X + Av(i,fu,cr',cx'(z))
The above is the description of Cv for Grammar 15.
A command may be a Cv, or "you" followed by a Cv, or a determiner-and-noun word followed by a Cv. If the Cv is incomplete, the command is incomplete:-
CX = CvX
or "you" + CvX
or Dnword + CvX
where Dnword, or determiner-and-noun word, is as described in Grammar 9. When a Cv is used alone as a command, as in "enjoy yourself" or "enjoy yourselves", or follows "you" as in "you behave yourselves", the Cv is 2nd-person, and is in declared context:- CX = Cv(2p,de)X
or "you" + Cv(2p,de)X
When a command is a Dnword + Cv string, the Cv is 3rd-person singular and has the gender gr' of the Dnword, as in "everybody behave himself". The Dnword is in declared context. If the Dnword is negative, as in "no-one eat anything yet", the Cv is in queried-or-negated context. Any label or none prefixed to Dnword will be represented by y, and the context of the Cv will be shown as declared modified by y, de(y):- CX = y-Dnword(gr',de) + Cv(3p,sg,gr',de(y))X
The words "you stop", for example, can be a command or a statement, but "someone stop" is a command. and "someone stops" and "everybody stopped" are statements.
.A command with a ng-Cv will be named a ng-C. Any label or none prefixed to C and Cv will be represented by z:-
z-CX = z-Cv(2p,de)X
or "you" + z-Cv(2p,de)X
or y-Dnword(gr',de) + z-Cv(3p,sg,gr'de(y))X
For example in "eat nothing", "nothing" completes and negates "eat" as an incomplete Cv or as an incomplete C.
A Text may be a command or negative command, z-C:-
Text = z-St(i/cl,de)
or z-Q(i/cl)
or z-Rq
or z-C
or ng-Av + z-Rst(i/cl)
or Text + Text
This is the description of Text for Grammar 15.
For example:-
The word "don't" can be used before "you", or before a determiner-and-noun word, as in:-
ng-C = "don't you eat the chocolate"
or "don't anyone eat anything"
The word "do" can precede a Dnword, as in:- C = "do everybody eat the chocolate please"
In these examples, "don't you" and "don't"+Dnword are incomplete negative commands requiring for completion V(e) expressions in future time, and "do"+Dnword, similarly, is an incomplete command requiring a V(e) in future time:- ng-CV(e,fu) = "don't you"
or "don't" + Dnword
CV(e,fu) = "do" + Dnword
After "don't you", the required V(e) is 2nd-person and in qon context. After "don't"+Dnword, the V(e) is 3rd-person singular with the gender of the Dnword, and in qon context. The Dnword is not negated by the "don't" and so is in declared context; for example in "don't anyone eat anything" "anyone" means " a person no matter who"and "anything" probably means "stuff at all". The Dnword may be negative, for example "do someone eat it" might be rephrased "don't nobody eat it". Any label or none prefixed to Dnword will be represented by y:- ng-CV(e,fu,2p,qon) = "don't you"
ng-CV(e,fu.3p,sg,gr',qon) = "don't" + y-Dnword(gr',de)
After "do"+Dnword, the required V(e) is 3rd-person singular, with the gender of the Dnword, and in declared context unless the Dnword is negative. Any label prefixed to Dnword will be represented by y and the context of the required V(e) will be shown as de(y). The y-Dnword is in declared context:- CV(e,fu,3p,sg,gr',de(y)) = "do" + y-Dnword(gr',de)
For example:-
where the definition which names the string "behav:e"+ Reflexive an Overb expecting no complement is in Grammar 11.
The word "please" can be added to the beginning or end of an incomplete or complete command or negative command:-
z-CX = "please" + z-CX
or z-CX + "please"
The description of C or 'command' is now:-
z-CX = "please" + z-CX
or z-Cv(2p,de)X
or "you" + z-Cv(2p,de)X
or y-Dnword(gr',de) + z-Cv(3p,sg,gr'de(y))X
ng-CV(e,fu,2p,qon) = "don't you"
ng-CV(e,fu.3p,sg,gr',qon) = "don't" + y-Dnword(gr',de)
CV(e,fu,3p,sg,gr',de(y)) = "do" + y-Dnword(gr',de)
z-CX = z-CX + "please"
This is the description of C or 'command' for Grammar 15.
In statements and questions, the verb do:-
do(i,pa)/(s.fu) = "did"
do(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e) = "do"
do(i,pr,3p,sg) = "does"
do(ing) = "doing"
do(ed) = "done"
can be an auxiliary or ordinary verb. The statement "he eats the chocolate", for example, cannot be contradicted by "he eats not it" or queried by "eats he it" because "eats" is not an auxiliary verb. But "he does not eat it" and "does he eat it?" are normal. In these two sentences, "does" has no meaning but serves as the required auxiliary verb. In the indicative mood, as in the two examples above, and in the subjunctive mood, as in "if he did eat it, we might", the verb do can be an auxiliary verb, static, expecting a V(e) complement:- Axverb((i/s)',sta)(V(e)) = do((i/s)')
The expected V(e) will have the time and character and be in the context of the Axverb:-Axverb((i/s)',t',sta,cr',cx')(V(e,t',cr;,cx'))
= do((i/s)',t',cr')
No gloss will be added to this definition.
The verb do can expect an N(acc), as in "he does the chocolate", meaning "he" works on the chocolate. the nature of the work being unrevealed. The example statement can be contradicted by "he doesn't do the chocolate" but not by "he doesn't the chocolate", and can be queried by "does he do the chocolate?" but not by "does he the chocolate", so do expecting an N(acc) is an ordinary verb, Overb. The expected N(acc) may reflect the character of the Overb, as in "he does himself" and is in the context of the Overb:-
Overb(f',t',dyn,cr'cx')(N(cr'acc,cx'))
= do(f',t',cr') "work:(f',t',cr') on"N(acc)
The verb do can be followed by "so". For example, "he ate the chocolate" might be rephrased "he did so", or contradicted by "he did not eat it" or "he did not do so". The phrase do+"so" is not normally interrupted by an adverbial, for example "he did so yesterday" cannot be rephrased "he did yesterday so". So do+"so" will be named an Overb expecting no complement:-Overb(f', t',dyn,cr')()
= do(f',t',cr') + "so" "act:(f',t',cr') acordingly"
The new definition for Axverb, the two new definitions for Overb, and the description of do, are repeated below in Grammar 15. Grammar 15 also repeats the descriptions of St Q Rst and V to link the new definitions for Axverb and Overb and the description of Text.
GRAMMAR 15
n and v restrictor trees as shown in Grammar 13
CHAPTER 15 entities, material, and proper names
The expresions "the child" and "the chocolate", first referred to in Chapter 1, are named in Grammar 15 in the definitions:-
N(nom/acc,3p,sg,masc/fem) = "the child"
N(nom/acc,3p,sg,neut) = "the chocolate"
These definitions will now be developed.
Two or more small letters are used as name symbols for irregular verbs. For example:-
do
names "did" "do" "does" "doing" and "done". From Grammar 15:-do(i,pa)/(s.fu) = "did"
do(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e) = "do"
do(i,pr,3p,sg) = "does"
do(ing) = "doing"
do(ed) = "done"
The name symbol for an irregular noun will be two or more capital letters. The words "child" and "children" will be named CHILD:-
CHILD(sg) = "child"
CHILD(pl) = "children"
and GOOSE will name "geese" and "goose":-GOOSE(pl) = "geese"
GOOSE(sg) = "goose"
The descriptions of CHILD and GOOSE are descriptions of functions. For example, input to CHILD a number, singular or plural, and CHILD outputs "child" or "children" as required. Using these names:-N(nom/acc,3p,nr',masc/fem) = "the" + CHILD(nr')
N(nom/acc,3p,nr') = "the" + GOOSE(nr')
A goose may be male or female but will often be referred to as "it". For a grammar, the gender of GOOSE is unrestricted.
To generate regular verbs, the symbols:-
: :e :p
between double quotation marks, are used. From Grammar 11:-":p(i,pr,1p/2p,sg)/(i,pr,pl)/(e)" = "p"
":p(i,pa)/(s,fu)/(ed)" = "pped"
":p(ing)" = "pping"
":p(i,pr,3p,sg)" = "ps"
For example. "sto:p" names "stop" "stopped" "stopping" and "stops". To generate regular nouns, an exclamation mark between double quotation marks will be used. The symbol ! will name nothing in the singular, and s in the plural:-"!(sg)" = ""
"!(pl)" = "s"
So "chocolate!" will name "chocolate" and "chocolates", and:-N(nom/acc,3p,nr',neut) = "the chocolate!(nr')"
Two new name symbols will now be introduced, Nn and Noun. An Nn expression will be a Noun or equivalent phrase. Nn will be to Noun what V is to Axverb and Overb. An N expression, nominative-or-accusative and 3rd-person, may be the string "the" + Nn. An Nn may be a Noun:-
N(nom/acc,3p) = "the" + Nn
Nn = Noun
A Noun is an expression such as CHILD "chocolate!" or GOOSE:-Noun(nr',masc/fem) = CHILD(nr')
Noun(nr',neut) = "chocolate!(nr')"
Noun(nr') = GOOSE(nr')
When an N expression is the string "the"+Nn, the N has the number and gender of the Nn, which are usually those of the Nn expression's Noun:-N(nom/acc,3p,nr',gr') = "the" + Nn(nr,gr'}
Nn(nr',gr') = Noun(nr',gr')
Noun(nr',masc/fem) = CHILD(nr')
Noun(nr',neut) = "chocolate!(nr')"
Noun(nr') = GOOSE(nr')
A child or goose exists as an entity. Chocolate is material. The Noun CHILD and the Noun GOOSE will be said to have the 'status' of entity, and "chocolate!" will be said to have the 'status' of material. A third type of Noun is a 'proper noun'; such as "Adam!":-Noun(nr',masc) = "Adam!(nr')"
The symbols su for 'status', et for 'entity status', mt for 'material status', and pp for 'proper status', will be added to the n restrictor tree after case and before character and context:-
The n restrictor tree. including the new status restrictors, is set out in full in Grammar 16.
"Adam!" is a proper Noun, CHILD and GOOSE will be named entity Noun, and "chocolate!" will be named material Noun:-
Noun(pp,nr',masc) = "Adam!(nr')"
Noun(et,nr',masc/fem) = CHILD(nr')
Noun(mt,nr',neut) = "chocolate!(nr')"
Noun(et,nr') = GOOSE(nr')
These definitions for Noun can be glosssed:-Noun(pp,nr',masc)
= "Adam!(nr')" "Adam!(nr') so-named"
Noun(et,nr',masc/fem)
= CHILD(nr') "youngster!(nr')"
Noun(mt,nr',neut)
= "chocolate!(nr')" "cocoa confection!(nr')"
Noun(et,nr')
= GOOSE(nr') "wildfowl"
Each of these definitions for Noun is the description of a function. Input to Noun an expression such as CHILD, and Noun outputs its meaning. The description of Noun is a set of functions.
Two nouns can be strung together. For example a "chocolate goose" might be a model of a goose made of chocolate, or might be a living goose which, in fact or fiction, has chocolate-coloured plumage. A "goose child" might be a child who looks after a flock of geese. A Noun+Noun phrase is used like a single noun, and will be named Noun. The phrase has the status, et mt or pp, and number and gender, of the second Noun in the string:-
Noun(su',nr',gr) = Noun + Noun(su',nr',gr')
This is a recursive definition. The symbol being defined recurs in its own definition, twice. The definition allows any number of nouns to be strung together. For example:-
"chocolate goose children"
= "chocolate!(sg)" + GOOSE(sg) + CHILD(pl)
= Noun(mt,sg,neut) + Noun(et,sg) + Noun(et,pl,masc/fem)
= Noun(mt,sg,neut} + Noun(et,pl,masc/fem)
= Noun(et,pl,masc/fem)
A Noun with entity status, or a Noun with proper status, can be an entity Nn, with the number and gender of the Noun:-Nn(et,nr',gr') = Noun(et,nr',gr')
or Noun(pp,nr',gr')
An N(nom/acc,3p) can be "the" followed by an Nn with entiy status. The N has the number and gender of the Nn:-N(nom/acc,3p,nr',gr') = "the" + Nn(et,nr',gr')
as in "the child eats chocolate" and "the children do". And, for example, "the Adam" might be the one child with that name, and "the Adams" might be all the children with that name. The definition for N can be glossed:-N(nom/acc,3p,nr',gr')
= "the" + Nn(et,nr',gr') "that/those known"+Nn
Nn(et,nr',gr') = Noun(et,nr',gr')
or Noun(pp,nr',gr')
Noun(pp,nr',masc)
= "Adam!(nr')" "Adam!(nr') so-named"
Noun(et,nr',masc/fem)
= CHILD(nr') "youngster!(nr')
Noun(et,nr')
= GOOSE(nr') "wildfowl"
A singular material Noun such as "chocolate" can be a singular material Nn, which can be used alone as an N(nom/acc,3p,sg,neut):-
N(nom/acc,3p,sg,neut) = Nn(mt,sg)
Nn(mt,sg) = Noun(mt,sg)
Noun(mt,nr',neut)
= "chocolate!(nr')" "cocoa confection!(nr')"
as in "the child eats chocolate.
A material Noun can be used as an entity Nn in order to refer to a batch or batches of the material existing as an entity or entities:-
Nn(et,nr',neut) = Noun(mt,nr')
This definition can be glossed using !ch, between double quotation marks, to generate ch in the singular and ches in the plural:-Nn(et,nr',neut)
= Noun(mt,nr') Noun+"bat!ch(nr')"
"!ch(sg)" = "ch"
"!ch(pl)" = "ches"
The nature of the batch or batches is undefined. For example, "the chocolate" might be that chocolate someone was talking about just now, perhaps a bar of chocolate or perhaps a type of chocolate such as milk chocolate; and "the chocolates" might be those chocolates in the box. The definitions for Nn(et) are now:-Nn(et,nr',gr') = Noun(et,nr',gr')
or Noun(pp,nr',gr')
Nn(et,nr',neut)
= Noun(mt,nr') Noun+"bat!ch(nr')"
An entity Noun in the singular can be a material neuter Nn when what is being referred to is the material which the entity is made of:-
Nn(mt,sg,neut)
= Noun(et,sg) Noun+"material"
For example in "the child eats goose", "goose" is goose material. So:-N(nom/acc,3p,sg,neut) = Nn(mt,sg)
Nn(mt,sg,neut)
= Noun(mt,sg)
or Noun(et,sg) Noun+"material"
A singular proper Noun such as "Adam" can be a singular proper Nn of the same gender. A singular N(nom/acc,3p) can be a singular proper Nn:-
N(nom/acc,3p,sg,gr') = Nn(pp,sg,gr')
Nn(pp,sg,gr') = Noun(pp,sg,gr')
Noun(pp,nr',masc)
= "Adam!(nr')" "Adam!(nr') so-named"
as in "Adam eats chocolate".The definitrions which name proper Noun are now:-Nn(pp,sg,gr') = Noun(pp,sg,gr')
Nn(et,nr',gr') = Noun(pp,nr',gr')
A plural N(nom/acc,3p) can be a plural Nn such as "children", "chocolates", "geese", or "Adams". The N has the gender of the Nn:-
N(nom/acc,3p,pl,gr') = Nn(pl,gr')
as in "children eat chocolates".
The four new definitions for N are now:-N(nom/acc,3p,nr',gr')
= "the" + Nn(et,nr',gr') "that/those known"+Nn
N(nom/acc,3p,sg,neut) = Nn(mt,sg)
N(nom/acc,3p,sg,gr') = Nn(pp,sg,gr')
N(nom/acc,3p,pl,gr') = Nn(pl,gr')
The latter three of the above definitions will not be glossed. The N has the meaning of its Nn. These four new definitions for N are repeated below in the description of N in Grammar 16.
The descriptions of Nn and Noun for Grammar 16 are:-
Nn(et,nr',gr') = Noun(et,nr',gr')
or Noun(pp,nr',gr')
Nn(et,nr',neut)
= Noun(mt,nr') Noun+"bat!ch(nr')"
Nn(mt,sg,neut)
= Noun(mt,sg)
or Noun(et,sg) Noun+"material"
Nn(pp,nr',sg) = Noun(pp,nr',sg)
Noun(pp,nr',masc)
= "Adam!(nr')" "Adam!(nr') so-named"
Noun(et,nr',masc/fem)
= CHILD(nr') "youngster!(nr')"
Noun(mt,nr',neut)
= "chocolate!(nr')" "cocoa confection!(nr')"
Noun(et,nr')
= GOOSE(nr') "wildfowl"
Noun(su',nr',gr) = Noun + Noun(su',nr',gr')
In Chapter 16, the definition:-
N(nom/acc,3p,nr',gr')
= "the" + Nn(et,nr',gr') "that/those known"+Nn
will be developed.
GRAMMAR 16
"!(sg)" = ""
"!(pl)" = "s"
"!ch(sg)" = "ch"
"!ch(pl)" = "ches"
Definitions for Axverb and Overb in Grammar 15
the v restrictor tree as shown in Grammar 13
GLOSSARY OF SYMBOLS
":" "" "ed" "ing" "s"
":e" "e" "ed" "es" "ing"
":p" "p" "pped" "pping" "ps"
"!" "" "s"
"!ch" "ch" "ches"
1p 1st-person
2p 2nd-person
3p 3rd-person
a aspect dyn/sta/per
acc accusative case
Adv adverb
al(t) at-or-later-than(time)
Av adverbial
Axverb 'auxiliary verb'
be "am""are" "be" "been" "being" "is" "was" "were"
C 'command'
CHILD "child" "children"
cl conditional mood
cr character p,nr,gr
cs case nom/acc/gen
Cv 'command V'
cx context de/qon
de declared context
Dnword 'determiner and noun word' eg "anybody" "everyone" "nothing"
do "did" "do" "does" "doing" "done"
dyn dynamic aspect
e e non-modal form
eat "ate" "eat" "eaten" "eating" "eats"
ed ed mon-modal form
et entity status
f form m/nm
fem feminine gender
fu future time
GOOSE "goose" "geese"
gen genitive case
go "go" "goes" "going" "gone" "went"
gr gender masc/fem/neut
have "had" "has" "have" "having"
Hv "have"+V(ed) "have" "not have"+V(ed) "not have"
i indicative mood
ing ing non-modal form
m mood i/cl/s
masc masculine gender
mt material status
N "the child" "the chocolate" Pronoun etc.
n cs,su,cr,cx
neut neuter gender
ng negative
nm non-modal form e/ed/ing
Nn Noun or equivalent phrase
nom nominative case
Noun 'noun' eg CHILD "chocolate!" GOOSE
nr number sg/pl
Overb 'ordinary (as opposed to auxiliary) verb'
p person 1p/2p/3p
pa past time
per perfect aspect
pl plural number
pp proper-noun status
pr present time
Pronoun 'pronoun', "I" "me" "my" "you" "your" "he" etc
Q 'question'
qon queried-or-negated context
Reflexive 'reflexive-pronoun' eg "myself" "ourselves" "yourself"
Rq 'request'
Rst 'reversed statement' eg "had he it"
s subjunctive mood
sg singular number
St 'statement'
sta static aspect
su status et/mt/pp
t time fu/pr/pa
take "take" "taken" "takes" "taking" "took"
Text 'text', St Q Rq C ng-Av+Rst Text+Text
Tv "to"*V(e) "to" "not to"+V(e) "not to"
V verb with its complement if any perhaps with one or more adverbials
v f,t,a,cr,cx
W any one expression
X any expression or expressions or none
y any label or labels or none
z any label or labels or none
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